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11th Century AD – The Normans Conquer the South

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The 11th century AD is the century of the Normans. It opens with the old order intact — a Byzantine Catapan at Bari, Lombard princes in Capua, Benevento, and Salerno, Kalbid emirs in Sicily — and closes with nearly all of it in the hands of a single family of Norman adventurers, the Hautevilles. What began as bands of pilgrims and mercenaries hiring out to Lombard rebels became, step by step, a state: Aversa (1030), Melfi (1041), the crushing of a papal army at Civitate (1053), the papal investiture of Robert Guiscard at Melfi (1059), the fall of Bari in 1071 — ending Byzantine power in Italy after five centuries — Palermo in 1072, Salerno in 1076–78, and the completed conquest of Sicily by Count Roger I in 1090. Along the way Guiscard sacked Rome itself to rescue Pope Gregory VII, invaded the Byzantine Empire, and died on campaign in Illyria. The century ends with the Great Schism dividing the churches, the First Crusade preached at Clermont and Bari, and southern Italy transformed forever.

Full Chronological Summary (11th Century AD)

New Dioceses (11th Century)

  • Acerra, Andria, Anglona, Ariano, Ascoli Satriano, Boiano, Castellaneta, Lacedonia, Melfi, Mileto, San Severo, Tricarico

Note: The dioceses of Acerenza, Palermo, Reggio Calabria, Matera, Otranto, and Trani are each raised to the status of a Metropolitan Archdiocese during this century. The church of S. Giorgio is built at Campobasso on the site of an ancient temple.

1001 AD

  • Citizens of Tricarico in Lucania petition the Byzantine Catapan, Gregory Tracanioto, to have their city-territory redefined because of the devastation caused by the Saracens.

1002 AD

  • (Jan 23) Holy Roman Emperor Otto III dies at the castle of Paterno in Civita Castellana, near Viterbo — only 22 years old. His cause of death is uncertain: some sources say malaria, others claim he was poisoned by Stefania, widow of Crescentius II. Henry II, duke of Bavaria and Otto III’s cousin, becomes king of Germany.
  • (Feb 2) Byzantine Catapan Gregory Tarchaneiotes repeats his confirmation of the possessions of the monastery of Monte Cassino.
  • Sergius IV becomes duke of Naples.
  • Saracens raid into Campania. Benevento is attacked, the countryside near Naples is devastated, and Capua is besieged by the raiders.

1003 AD

  • (May 12) Pope Silvester II dies and is succeeded by John XVII on May 16 — who dies on November 6 and is succeeded on December 25 by John XVIII.
  • Saracens ravage the countryside around Taranto.

1004 AD

  • John I becomes duke of Amalfi.
  • Ischia is occupied by the German King Henry II.
  • Catapan Gregory Tarchaneiotes fortifies and expands the castle of Dragonara on the Fortore, adding four new towers (3 circular, 1 square).
  • Famine and widespread disease are reported in Rome.

1005 AD

  • A severe drought in southern Italy leads to economic crisis, famine, and an outbreak of plague throughout Calabria and Apulia. The suffering continues until 1007.
  • Saracens make serious inroads throughout Apulia and Calabria.

1006 AD

  • Alexius Xiphias becomes protospatharius and Catapan of Apulia/Italy.
  • (Dec 31) Eruption of Vesuvius.

1007 AD

  • Catapan Alexius Xiphias promulgates a diploma favoring Alexander, abbot of S. Giovanni in Lamis. Later in the year, Xiphias is killed in battle.
  • Pandulf II becomes prince of Capua.
  • Sergius II becomes duke of Amalfi.

1008 AD

  • John III dies, leaving John IV as sole duke of Gaeta.
  • (May) John Curcuas arrives at Bari to take the post of Catapan of Apulia/Italy.

1009 AD

  • (June) Pope John XVIII dies. He is succeeded on July 31 by Sergius IV.
  • Pandulf III becomes co-prince of Capua.
  • (May 9) Lombard revolt led by Melus (Melo) against the Byzantines breaks out in Bari, soon spreading to other cities in Apulia.
  • (late in year) Catapan John Curcuas is killed in battle with the Lombard rebels (some sources place this in early 1010).

1010 AD

  • John I, duke of Amalfi, receives the title of Patrician (patricius) from the Byzantine Emperor Basil II “the Bulgar-slayer.”
  • Giovanni IV, Docibile di Gaeta, becomes abbot of Monte Cassino.
  • (Mar) Basil Argyros Mesardonites becomes Catapan of Apulia/Italy. Supported by Leo Tornikios Kontoleon, strategos of Cephalonia, Basil lays siege to Bari, then in the hands of the Lombard rebels.

1011 AD

  • (June 11) Catapan Basil Argyros Mesardonites enters Bari after the Greek inhabitants arrange its surrender. The Lombard leaders Melus and Dattus escape. Basil sends the family of Melus as hostages to Constantinople but makes no reprisals against the Lombards in Bari.
  • (Oct) The Catapan visits Salerno, whose prince Guaimar III is a nominal Byzantine vassal, then moves on to Monte Cassino, where he successfully demands that Abbot Atenulf stop sheltering the fugitive Dattus. When Basil confirms Monte Cassino’s privileges on land in Byzantine territory, Dattus is forced to flee again, taking shelter in papal territory.
  • Atenolfo becomes abbot of Monte Cassino.
  • (winter) Naples endures severe cold, wet, and windy weather. Famine and economic crisis result from the loss of crops and livestock.

1012 AD

  • (May 12) Pope Sergius IV dies. He is succeeded on May 18 by Benedict VIII.
  • Pandulf III becomes co-prince of Benevento.
  • (Apr or Aug) John IV, duke of Gaeta, dies. Leo I “the usurper” seizes power and drives away the legitimate heir, the infant John V. In October, John V’s supporters drive Leo from office; John V is restored with his maternal grandmother, the Roman senatrix Emilia, as regent.

1014 AD

  • (Feb 14) Pope Benedict VIII crowns Henry II as Holy Roman Emperor.
  • Sergius II, duke of Amalfi, names his son John II as co-duke and successor.

1015 AD

  • Leo II, uncle and tutor to John V of Gaeta, takes over the regency in opposition to his own mother Emilia.
  • Locust swarms afflict Calabria and Benevento in May and June.

1016 AD

  • Pandulf IV “the Wolf of the Abruzzi” becomes co-prince of Capua.
  • Catapan Basil Argyros Mesardonites dies (or 1017).
  • The Saracens destroy the town of Luna in Tuscany. Pope Benedict VIII intercepts the raiders and drives them out of Tuscany. Retreating south, the Saracens lay siege to Salerno.
    • The siege is broken by a band of Norman pilgrims who had arrived at Salerno on their return journey from Jerusalem — the traditional beginning of the Norman story in southern Italy.

1017 AD

  • Norman mercenaries join the Lombards in rebellion against the Byzantines in Apulia.
  • (May) Leo Tornikios Kontoleon becomes Catapan of Apulia/Italy.
  • A Byzantine army under general Leo Passianos meets a Lombard force under Melus at Arenula, on the river Fortore, in June — sources contradict on whether it ended in a draw or a Lombard victory. The Catapan then takes personal command.
    • A second battle is fought near Civita, which probably ended in a Lombard victory; general Leo Passianos is slain there.
    • A third battle at Vaccaricia, in northern Apulia, ends in a decisive Lombard victory.
  • For his failures against the rebels, Catapan Tornikios is recalled to Constantinople in September. (Dec) Emperor Basil II appoints Basil Boioannes as Catapan of Apulia.

1018 AD

  • In response to Catapan Basil Boioannes’s request for reinforcements, a unit of the elite Varangian Guard is sent to Italy.
  • Byzantines under Boioannes defeat the Lombard rebels and their Norman allies at the river Ofanto near Cannae. Melus retreats into papal territory, never able to renew the rebellion; he eventually settles at the court of Emperor Henry II at Bamberg.
    • Several Normans, after heavy losses in the battle, enter Byzantine service; others hire themselves out as mercenaries to various Lombard lords.
  • Boioannes founds Troia in Apulia on the site of ancient Aecae, garrisoning the stronghold with Norman mercenaries in Byzantine service (alt. date 1019). He founds other towns in Apulia at this time, including Torremaggiore [FG].
  • Boioannes’s campaign eventually restores Byzantine control over most of the southern Italian mainland. Only the Lombard duchy of Benevento, a papal vassal, successfully resists.

1019 AD

  • Ja’far al-Kalbi, the Kalbid Emir of Sicily, dies. He is succeeded by al-Akhal (to 1037).

1020 AD

  • Melus of Bari dies at Bamberg. Emperor Henry II gives him a state funeral.
  • Pope Benedict VIII travels to Bamberg to appeal to Henry II for help against the rising Byzantine power in southern Italy.
  • Byzantines under Basil Boioannes, supported by Prince Pandulf IV of Capua, capture the stronghold of the Lombard rebel Dattus on the river Garigliano. On June 15, Dattus — brother-in-law of Melus — is executed: sewn into a sack with a monkey, a rooster, and a snake, and thrown into the sea (alt. date 1021).
  • The Knights Hospitaller are established at Jerusalem.

1022 AD

  • The German ruler Henry II marches into southern Italy and captures Capua and Benevento. He then attacks the new Byzantine stronghold at Troia but fails to defeat its Norman garrison and withdraws north. Boioannes grants special privileges to Troia as a reward for its loyalty.
  • Henry II drives Pandulf IV from Capua and makes Pandulf V of Teano the new prince there.
  • (June) Teobaldo becomes abbot of Monte Cassino.

1024 AD

  • (Apr 9) Pope Benedict VIII dies. He is succeeded on April 19 by John XIX.
  • (July 13) Holy Roman Emperor Henry II dies (canonized as a saint in 1146). Conrad II is elected the new king of the Germans and crowned on September 8, beginning the Salian (Franconian) dynasty.

1025 AD

  • Basil Boioannes and Emperor Basil II “the Bulgar-Slayer” prepare an expedition against the Saracens in Sicily. In April an advance force under the eunuch Orestes is sent ahead — but Basil II falls ill and dies before the main expedition sets out. The new emperor, Constantine VIII, cancels the enterprise.
  • Boioannes reorganizes the Catapanate and turns to helping his ally Pandulf IV, earlier driven from Capua.
  • Boioannes grants the request of Archbishop Byzantius of Bari to return the see of Bari to the control of the pope. Byzantius obtains from the pope the privilege of consecrating his own suffragans. Ioannes, archbishop of Bari, dies and is succeeded by Byzantius.
  • The Benedictine monastery of Trinità della Cava is built at Monte Finestra, near Cava in Campania.
  • (Dec 15) Byzantine emperor Basil II dies. He is succeeded by his younger brother Constantine VIII.

1026 AD

  • (May) Catapan Basil Boioannes forces Pandulf V of Teano to capitulate at Capua, granting him safe conduct to Naples. Pandulf IV is restored as prince of Capua.
  • Conrad II is crowned King of Italy at Milan.

1027 AD

  • (Mar 26, Easter) Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor.
  • Guaimar III dies. He is succeeded by his son Guaimar IV as prince of Salerno.
  • Pandulf IV, prince of Capua, seizes control of the duchy of Naples (to 1030).
  • Catapan Boioannes restores the city of Reggio, apparently after a raid by Saracen pirates. Boioannes is then recalled to Constantinople and replaced as Catapan by Christopher Burgaris (alt. date 1028).
  • Obbiano is captured by the Saracens. Bari repels a Saracen attack.

1028 AD

  • (Nov 15) Byzantine Emperor Constantine VIII dies. He is succeeded by his daughter Zoe and her husband Romanos III Argyros.
  • (c) Andronicus (Andronikos) arrives in Italy.
  • Manso II and his mother Maria seize control of Amalfi. Sergius II and John II flee to Constantinople.
  • Heavy rains fall throughout Italy.

1029 AD

  • Pandulf IV grants Aversa as a fief — the first Norman state in southern Italy.
  • John II returns from Constantinople and regains power as duke of Amalfi.
  • Byzantine general (koitonites) Orestes is defeated by the Saracens in Sicily.
  • (July) Pothos Argyrus arrives in Italy with an army to replace Christopher Burgaris as Catapan. Soon after arriving, he is defeated in battle at Bari by Saracen raiders under Rayca.
  • Argyrus the Elder returns from exile to Apulia.
  • Saracens under Rayca and Zaffari lay siege to Obbiano; the townspeople successfully negotiate the raiders’ departure. Saracens raid the coast of Apulia.
  • Two Jews are burned at the stake at Bari for smashing a cross.
  • Death of Ioannes of Monopoli.

1030 AD

  • Pandulf IV is driven from Naples. Sergius IV is restored to power.
  • Rainulf I Drengot becomes the first count of Aversa, the first Norman stronghold in southern Italy.
  • Normans destroy the abbey of Monte Cassino.
  • The Saracen castle at Caltagirone [CT] is attacked and captured by Ligurian mercenaries in the service of the Byzantine general George Maniakes. The troops settle there, remaining even after the restoration of Saracen power — the modern population still speaks a dialect bearing Ligurian traces.

1031 AD

  • John II, duke of Amalfi, names his son Sergius III as co-duke and successor, and receives the title of Patrician from Emperor Romanos III Argyros.
  • (June 11) Byzantines under Catapan Pothos Argyrus are defeated by the Saracens at Cassano allo Ionio (CS). (July 3) Catapan Pothos Argyrus is slain by the Saracens.
  • Roger I, future Great Count of Sicily, is born in Normandy.

1032 AD

  • Michael I Protospatharius becomes Catapan of Apulia.
  • (Oct) Pope John XIX dies. He is succeeded by his young nephew Benedict IX.
  • Angered at the help given to his enemy Sergius IV of Naples by Duke John V of Gaeta, Pandulf IV of Capua attacks and captures Gaeta, assuming the titles of consul and duke (as Pandulf I). Pandulf VI becomes co-duke of Gaeta.
    • John V escapes and maintains precarious control over part of his domain, but never retakes Gaeta. With his death (c1040), the old Docibilian dynasty comes to an end.
  • A Saracen squadron raids the Illyrian coast of the Adriatic. They burn Kerkyra but suffer heavy losses in battle and a subsequent storm.

1033 AD

  • Constantine II Opos becomes Catapan of Apulia/Italy, arriving in Italy in April and reaching Bari on May 1.

1034 AD

  • (Apr 11) Byzantine Emperor Romanos III dies. Sources claim he was assassinated by order of his wife Zoe — by poisoning or drowning in his bath — while others suspect tuberculosis. On the same day, Zoe marries her chamberlain, who becomes Michael IV.
  • John II of Amalfi is overthrown again by his brother and mother, Manso II and Maria.
  • Argyrus the Elder of Bari dies at Constantinople.
  • Byzantius, archbishop of Bari, divides his see.

1035 AD

  • (c) William and Drogo Hauteville arrive in southern Italy — the first of the family that will conquer the south.
  • (Jan) Byzantius, archbishop of Bari, dies at Constantinople. He is succeeded by Nicolo (or Romuald protospatharios). (Apr) Romuald, the new archbishop, and his brother Petros are summoned to Constantinople; soon after arriving, Romuald dies.
  • Civil war rages in Sicily between the emir Apolaphar Mouchoumet and his brother Apochaps. Apochaps has the support of Oumer, the Saracen ruler in Africa, who is promised territory on the island; the emir has the support of the Roman Leon Opos, whose Lombard mercenaries hold the African forces in check.
  • (May) Saracen raiders from North Africa and Sicily enter the Aegean, raiding the Cyclades and coastal Thrakesion. A Byzantine fleet under Constantine Chage surprises them and nearly wipes them out. Many captives are thrown into the sea, while 500 are sent in chains to Emperor Michael IV.
  • Following the victory, Georgios Probatas negotiates a new peace with emir Apolaphar Mouchoumet, returning to Constantinople with one of the emir’s sons, apparently as a hostage.
  • As part of the new agreement, George Maniaces is sent to command Byzantine forces in southern Italy as strategos autokrator (supreme commander), with Stephanos, brother-in-law of Emperor Michael IV, commanding the fleet. Maniaces launches an invasion of Sicily in support of the emir — but the Byzantine forces are too few and are nearly wiped out by the army of Apochaps’s African ally Oumer.
  • Construction begins on the Cathedral of San Sabino in Bari, completed in 1171 (alt. date 1034).

1036 AD

  • John V becomes duke of Naples.
  • (June) Basilio becomes abbot of Monte Cassino.

1037 AD

  • The civil war in Sicily ends when emir Apolaphar Mouchoumet and his brother Apochaps reconcile. Their Italian ally Leo Opos withdraws with his Lombard forces — leaving Oumer, the African ally, free to despoil Sicily without opposition.
  • (Jan 27) Eruption of Vesuvius.
  • Al-Akhal, Kalbid emir of Sicily, dies.

1038 AD

  • Byzantines under George Maniaces launch an invasion of Saracen Sicily, supplemented by 500 Norman (“Frank”) mercenaries commanded by Arduin (alt. date 1037).
    • The Saracen brothers Apolaphar Mouchoumet and Apochaps join forces against Maniaces — who defeats their united armies at Remata. The Saracen force, including 50,000 troops from Africa, suffers major losses.
    • Maniaces restores imperial rule over much of eastern Sicily and captures Syracuse, transferring the relics of St. Lucy to Constantinople.
  • Michael II Spondyles becomes Catapan of Apulia/Italy.
  • Guaimar IV, prince of Salerno, becomes prince of Capua. Landulf VI becomes co-prince of Benevento.
  • (June) Richerio becomes abbot of Monte Cassino.
  • John II again drives Manso II and Maria out of Amalfi and is restored as duke. He has Manso blinded and exiled to the island of Sirene, but reconciles with his mother Maria and allows her to remain as co-ruler.

1039 AD

  • (Feb) Nicephorus II Doukeianos arrives at Bari as the new Catapan.
  • (June 4) Holy Roman Emperor Conrad II dies. He is succeeded as king of Germany by his eldest son Henry III.
  • (Apr) Guaimar IV of Salerno becomes duke of Amalfi. John and his son Sergius III flee to Constantinople. Gaeta, Naples, and Amalfi acknowledge the lordship of Guaimar IV — the high-water mark of Lombard Salerno.

1040 AD

  • Guaimar IV appoints the blinded Manso II as co-duke of Amalfi; Manso acknowledges Guaimar as suzerain. (June) Guaimar IV also becomes duke of Gaeta.
  • (Jan 9) Catapan Nicephorus II Doukeianos is killed at Ascoli. Michael III Doukeianos (“Duichiano the Young”) becomes Catapan.
  • Catapan Michael III offers the Lombard Arduin control of Melfi with the title of topoterites (deputy commander) — a decision with consequences.
  • Hasan as-Samsam becomes Kalbid emir of Sicily (to 1053).
  • Oumer, the African leader, returns to Sicily with a large army but escapes a Byzantine defeat in a small boat back to Africa. Maniaces blames the fleet commander Stephanos for the escape and personally beats him about the head, calling him a coward and traitor. Stephanos begins to plot against Maniaces.

1041 AD

  • (Dec 10) Byzantine Emperor Michael IV dies of illness. His nephew Michael V is raised to co-ruler by his adoptive mother Empress Zoe.
  • Arduin betrays his oath to the Byzantines. With a force of Norman mercenaries he marches to support Argyrus, the new Lombard rebel leader in Apulia. Normans seize Melfi from the Byzantines.
  • The rebels defeat the Byzantines at Olivento and Montepeloso.
    • (Mar 16) A Byzantine army under Catapan Michael III Doukeianos meets the Norman force under Arduin on the river Olivento, near Venosa. Michael’s negotiation attempts fail and he is forced to fight.
    • (May 4) The armies clash again at Montemaggiore, near Cannae — a Norman victory in which many Byzantines, including part of the elite Varangian Guard, drown while retreating across the Ofanto. Catapan Michael is transferred to Sicily.
  • (after Sept) Exaugustus Boiannes, son of Basil Boiannes, arrives as the new Catapan with only a contingent of Varangians at his disposal. (Sept 3) He is defeated by the Normans near Melfi and taken prisoner; the Normans turn him over to Atenulf, the Lombard Prince of Benevento.
  • Rainulf Drengot, Norman count of Aversa, becomes duke of Gaeta as a vassal of Guaimar IV of Salerno.

1042 AD

  • (Apr 18) Emperor Michael V unsuccessfully attempts to depose Empress Zoe; a revolt drives him from the throne the next day. Zoe becomes principal empress with her sister Theodora as co-ruler. Michael V flees to a monastery but is apprehended by Zoe’s agents, who blind and castrate him; he dies on August 24. (June 11) Zoe marries Constantine IX and raises him to share the throne.
  • (Feb) The Byzantines pay a large ransom to free Exaugustus Boiannes — but the Lombard leader Atenulf embezzles the treasure, abandons the rebels, and flees into Byzantine territory. Argyrus is selected to replace him as leader of the anti-Byzantine rebellion. Boiannes is freed but not restored to command.
  • (Feb) Synodianos is appointed Catapan and begins gathering an army to retake the lost cities — but is recalled to Constantinople in April.
  • The Byzantine invasion of Sicily under Maniaces collapses. (July) George Maniaces is appointed Catapan of Apulia/Italy — then his enemy Romanus Sclerus convinces the new emperor Constantine IX to recall him. Knowing the recall means arrest and probable execution, Maniaces revolts and proclaims himself emperor, winning the support of the Byzantine and Varangian troops under his command in Italy.
  • (Sept) Pardos is sent as the new Catapan to replace the rebel Maniaces, supported by Nicholas, Archbishop of Bari, and the protospatharius Tubachi. Pardos and Tubachi are soon arrested at Otranto and executed by order of Maniaces.
  • Sipontum (Siponto) in Apulia becomes the seat of a Norman county.
  • Sergius V becomes duke of Naples.
  • Plague spreads through Italy, France, and Greece.

1043 AD

  • George Maniaces crosses from Italy into Greece and marches toward Constantinople — but is blocked by imperial forces near Thessalonika, where he falls in battle.
  • William “Iron Arm” Hauteville is declared Count of Apulia and Calabria (Comes Apuliae et Calabriae) at Matera by the Normans, becoming a vassal of Guaimar IV of Salerno and leader of the anti-Byzantine revolt (alt. date 1042). Normans take Matera.
  • Theodore III Cano (Basil Theodorocanus) becomes Catapan of Apulia.
  • A dispute arises over the lands of Monte Cassino between Rainulf Drengot of Aversa, Guaimar IV of Salerno, and Pandulf IV of Capua.

1044 AD

  • (Sept) Pope Benedict IX is bribed to abdicate.
  • Guaimar IV and William “Iron Arm” launch a raid on Byzantine Calabria.

1045 AD

  • (Jan) Silvester III becomes pope. In April he is deposed and Benedict IX returns to the papal throne. A few weeks later, in May, Benedict resigns — selling the papal throne to his godfather John Gratian for over 1,450 lb of gold. Gratian assumes the papacy as Gregory VI.
    • Benedict soon changes his mind and attempts to retake the throne, recapturing Rome — but Gregory refuses to give up his claim, and the deposed Silvester III also claims to be the legitimate pope. Three rival popes now contest the throne.
  • Asclettin Drengot, nephew of Rainulf, succeeds his uncle as count of Aversa and duke of Gaeta. He is soon replaced by his cousin Rainulf II Trincanocte.
  • Atenulf I, Lombard count of Aquino, seizes the duchy of Gaeta.
  • Eustathios Palatinos and Constantine III Chagea become co-Catapans of Apulia/Italy (or early 1046).

1046 AD

  • (Dec) Henry III intervenes to resolve the papal crisis, convening the Council of Sutri, which declares Benedict IX and Silvester III deposed. On December 20, Gregory VI, accused of simony, agrees to resign. Silvester III accepts the ruling; Benedict IX remains defiant.
  • (Dec 25) Clement II is consecrated as the new pope. The same day, Clement crowns Henry III and his wife Agnes as Holy Roman Emperor and Empress.
  • William “Iron Arm” dies and is succeeded as Count of Apulia and Calabria by his brother Drogo.
  • Catapan Eustathios Palatinos is defeated near Taranto by the Normans under Drogo Hauteville. John II Rafayl becomes Catapan of Apulia.
  • (c) The Norman count Peter enlarges and fortifies Andria [BA], raising it to the status of a true city.

1047 AD

  • (Oct 9) Pope Clement II dies from poison. In November, Benedict IX returns and seizes control of the Lateran Palace.
  • Emperor Henry III arrives in Italy; Drogo becomes his vassal. Henry awards Benevento to Humphrey of Hauteville.
  • Robert Guiscard, brother of Drogo, arrives in southern Italy.
  • Pandulf IV is again restored as prince of Capua.
  • Manso II names his son Sergius III as co-duke of Amalfi.

1048 AD

  • (Jan) Emperor Henry III names Damasus II as the rightful successor to Clement II. Accompanied by imperial troops, Damasus marches to Rome; on July 16 Benedict IX is driven out for the final time, and Damasus takes the papal throne the next day. Benedict’s ultimate fate is uncertain — his death is variously listed as 1055, 1056, 1065, or 1085.
  • (Aug 9) Only a few weeks after arriving in Rome, Pope Damasus II dies — a victim of either malaria or poison.
  • Normans under Humphrey of Hauteville defeat the Byzantines at Tricarico in Lucania.
  • Robert Guiscard is given control of the castle of Scribla in Calabria — his first holding.
  • Herman succeeds his father Rainulf II Trincanocte as count of Aversa.
  • Drought and cold weather throughout Italy lead to a new famine.

1049 AD

  • (Feb 12) Leo IX becomes pope. He holds a synod at Melfi where he attempts to curb the growing Norman power.
  • Leo IX sends Humbertus to Sicily to become the first archbishop of Palermo — but he is prevented from taking his seat when the Normans refuse to allow him to land.
  • Richard I replaces his cousin Herman as count of Aversa.
  • Bayulo becomes Catapan of Apulia.
  • Possible eruption of Vesuvius.

1050 AD

  • Byzantine empress Zoe dies. Constantine IX is now sole ruler.
  • Pandulf VI becomes prince of Capua.
  • A popular uprising at Benevento drives co-princes Pandulf III and Landulf VI from power.
  • (c) Construction begins on the cathedral at Teano (completed 1116).

1051 AD

  • (Aug 10) Drogo is assassinated and succeeded by his brother Humphrey as Count of Apulia and Calabria (alt. date 1050).
  • Pope Leo IX attempts to form an alliance against the Normans. The city of Benevento becomes papal territory.

1052 AD

  • (June 3) Guaimar IV of Salerno is assassinated by Amalfitans. Humphrey defeats the usurpers and makes Guaimar’s son, Gisulf II, Prince of Salerno.
  • John II regains power in Amalfi.
  • Sicone becomes Catapan of Apulia.

1053 AD

  • Pope Leo IX goes to war against the Normans. Under the command of Geoffrey, duke of Lorraine, and Rodolf, prince of Benevento, a papal army of about 6,000 Italian Lombards and German Swabians invades Norman territory.
    • (June 18) Battle of Civitate. The papal army is defeated at Civitate del Fortore, near Foggia, by a Norman force of about 3,500 under Humphrey d’Hauteville, Count Richard of Aversa, and Humphrey’s younger brother Robert Guiscard.
    • Leo IX is taken prisoner and brought to Benevento, where he remains for about 9 months — treated with respect throughout by his captor, Richard of Aversa. He is released after agreeing to recognize the Norman conquests in Italy.
    • The Normans formally cede their claim to Benevento to the papacy. Rodolf is appointed as rector.
  • The Kalbid dynasty in Saracen Sicily ends, causing disorder on the island.
  • The diocese of Aversa is established.

1054 AD

  • The Great Schism between the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches becomes permanent.
  • (Apr 19) Pope Leo IX dies.
  • The people of Benevento defy the new papal rector and invite the co-princes Pandulf III and Landulf VI back as rulers.
  • Geoffrey, Mauger, and William Hauteville arrive in southern Italy. Normans continue their expansion into Apulia.
  • Scinuro becomes Catapan of Apulia.

1055 AD

  • (Jan 11) Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX dies. Theodora becomes the reigning Empress.
  • (Apr 13) Victor II becomes pope.
  • (Dec) Pietro I becomes abbot of Monte Cassino.
  • Humphrey grants William Hauteville lands formerly controlled by Salerno; William becomes “William of the Principate.”
  • Pandulf III and Landulf VI are confirmed in power at Benevento as vassals of the papacy.

1056 AD

  • (Aug 31) Byzantine Empress Theodora dies. She is succeeded by Michael VI Bringas.
  • (Oct 5) Holy Roman Emperor Henry III dies. His 6-year-old son Henry IV becomes King of the Germans under the regency of his mother Agnes.
  • Pandulf IV becomes co-prince of Benevento.

1057 AD

  • Byzantine Emperor Michael VI is deposed by a conspiracy of nobles which, on June 8, chooses Isaac I Komnenos as emperor. The factions contest the throne until, on August 31, Patriarch Michael Keroularios convinces Michael VI to resign. Michael retires to private life and dies two years later.
  • Humphrey dies and is succeeded by his brother Robert Guiscard as Count of Apulia and Calabria.
  • Roger, brother of Robert Guiscard, arrives in southern Italy and joins Robert on campaign in Calabria.
  • (May 23) Federico di Lorena becomes abbot of Monte Cassino.
  • (July 28) Pope Victor II dies and is succeeded on August 2 by Stephen IX (X), who begins forming a new alliance against the Normans.
  • Landulf VIII becomes prince of Capua.
  • The diocese of Lecce is established.

1058 AD

  • Pope Stephen IX bans the use of the local Beneventan chant at Benevento and Monte Cassino.
    • Beneventan chant was a liturgical rite and plainchant developed at Benevento in the 7th and 8th centuries. Its distinct nature — set apart from the better-known Gregorian chant — shows connections to the earlier Ambrosian Chant, with roots in the music of the late Roman Empire, as well as Lombard influences.
  • (Mar 29) Pope Stephen IX dies. Rival popes contest the throne: the antipope Benedict X is initially chosen, but his election is contested; Nicholas II is chosen in December and crowned early in 1059.
  • (June?) Desiderius becomes abbot of Monte Cassino.
  • The Norman Richard, count of Aversa, overthrows the Lombard Landulf VIII and seizes Capua, uniting Aversa with Capua and assuming the title of prince. Richard I Drengot is the nephew of Rainulf Drengot, the first count of Aversa.
  • Richard I of Capua and his son Jordan capture Gaeta.
  • Roger and William rebel against their brother Robert Guiscard.
  • Robert Guiscard divorces his first wife Alberada, considered too close a relation; her sister Gaitelgrima had earlier married Robert’s half-brother Drogo.

1059 AD

  • (Jan 24) Nicholas II is crowned pope. Normans under Richard of Capua march on Rome, where they install him.
  • (Nov 22) Byzantine emperor Isaac I Komnenos resigns and enters a monastery. He is succeeded by Constantine X Ducas.
  • Robert Guiscard reconciles with his brothers Roger and William and continues seizing lands in Calabria. Normans capture Gerace. Melfi becomes the Norman capital of the duchy of Apulia.
  • Synod of Melfi. Pope Nicholas II invests Richard as Prince of Capua and Robert Guiscard as Count of Apulia and Calabria — and of Sicily, despite the island being under Saracen control. The Norman conquests now carry papal legitimacy.
  • The abbey church of SS. Trinità at Venosa is consecrated by Pope Nicholas II. Maurus, the earliest-known bishop of Ascoli, attends the consecration of the Church of St. Angelo at Volturno. Earliest mention of a diocese at Cassano allo Ionio (CS).

1060 AD

  • Robert Guiscard marries Sichelgaita, daughter of Guaimar IV of Salerno (some sources place the marriage in 1058).
  • Robert and Roger campaign against the Byzantines, capturing Brindisi and Reggio. (May) Normans capture Taranto; in October the Byzantines retake the city.
  • Roger leads a force of 60 Norman knights across the Straits of Messina from Reggio to raid Sicily — the first Norman blow against the island.
  • Miriarca becomes Catapan of Apulia. The Byzantines counter-attack, advancing to Melfi and laying siege to the city.
  • Eustachio becomes the first archbishop of Brindisi.
  • Constantinus Afer (Africanus), from Carthage, arrives in Salerno and then Monte Cassino. A notable scholar skilled in several languages, he translates the Greek pseudo-Galen and Hippocrates and adapts the Arabic Ali ibn Abbas and Abu Jafar Ahmed — foundational work for the Salerno medical school.

1061 AD

  • (July 19 or 27) Pope Nicholas II dies. He is succeeded, on October 1, by Alexander II (Anselmo da Baggio).
  • The Byzantines withdraw from Melfi. Marulo becomes Catapan of Apulia.
  • Robert Guiscard captures Acerenza in Lucania.
  • Robert Guiscard and Roger, leading 440 knights, invade Sicily — initially as allies of one of the warring Saracen emirs. They seize control of Messina.
  • Roger marries Judith, daughter of William of Evreus, at Mileto.

1062 AD

  • Robert Guiscard and Roger quarrel over the division of the new conquests.
  • Richard I of Capua and his son Jordan capture Gaeta for a second time. Giordano (Jordan) I becomes Prince of Aversa.
  • Atenulf II, infant son of Atenulf I, succeeds his father as count of Aquino and duke of Gaeta, under the regency of his mother Maria.
  • Sirianus and Pulchiano become co-Catapans of Apulia. Andrea becomes archbishop of Bari.
  • Zirid Saracens in Tunisia send reinforcements to Sicily. They besiege Roger and Judith at Troina. Normans defeat the Saracens outside Enna but fail to take the city.

1063 AD

  • Roger breaks the Saracen siege at Troina, then defeats the Saracens at Cerami (Ceramium) — the decisive early battle of the Sicilian conquest. Roger is confirmed in his conquests by Pope Alexander II.
  • Pisans make an unsuccessful attempt to capture Palermo from the Saracens.

1064 AD

  • Robert Guiscard leads a new Norman army into Sicily and joins Roger in an unsuccessful siege of Palermo.
  • Norman barons in Apulia revolt against Robert Guiscard.
  • William I of Montreuil, the Norman stepfather of Atenulf II, assumes the title of duke of Gaeta for himself. He is quickly driven from power by Lando, count of Traietto, who captures the duchy.
  • Apochara becomes Catapan of Apulia.
  • A church council held at Bari is presided over by Arnoldo, Vicar of Pope Alexander II.

1065 AD

  • Dannibaldo becomes duke of Gaeta.
  • Alcheris becomes bishop of Palermo.

1066 AD

  • The barons’ revolt against Robert Guiscard continues in Apulia. A Byzantine army under Abdul Kare enters Apulia.
  • Cyriacus becomes Catapan of Apulia.
  • The Cathedral of Amalfi is constructed.

1067 AD

  • (May 22) Byzantine Emperor Constantine X dies. His widow Eudocia Makrembolitissa and brother, the Caesar John Doukas, become regents to his sons Michael VII Doukas and Konstantios Doukas. The new Byzantine government cuts off support to the rebel barons in Apulia.
  • Mabrica becomes Catapan of Apulia.
  • Geoffrey Ridell becomes duke of Gaeta as a vassal of Richard I of Capua. He is soon driven out of the city by a popular revolt but maintains control over the rest of the duchy, ruling from his castle at Pontecorvo.

1068 AD

  • (Jan 1) Eudocia Makrembolitissa marries general Romanos Diogenes, who becomes senior Byzantine emperor as Romanos IV. Andronikos Doukas is raised to co-emperor.
  • Robert Guiscard crushes the last of the rebels in Apulia — and lays siege to Byzantine-held Bari. Otranto surrenders to him.
  • Roger defeats the Zirid Saracens at Misilmeri (Menzel el Amir), leading to their withdrawal from Sicily.
  • The diocese of Sorrento is raised to the status of a Metropolitan Archdiocese.

1069 AD

  • Sergius III is restored as duke of Amalfi.
  • Stephen Paterano becomes Catapan of Apulia. He is soon replaced by Argyrus of Joannica.

1070 AD

  • Normans erect a new castle on the site of the acropolis of ancient Vibo Valentia in Calabria.
  • Normans take Brindisi from the Byzantines.
  • Menardus, the earliest-known bishop of Ariano, erects a marble baptistery in his cathedral.

1071 AD

  • (Apr 15/16) Bari capitulates to Robert Guiscard. Byzantine power in Italy — five centuries old — comes to an end.
  • Robert Guiscard leads an army and fleet to Sicily, beginning a new siege of Palermo.
  • Pope Alexander II consecrates the church at Monte Cassino.

1072 AD

  • (Jan 10) Palermo surrenders to the Normans. The attack is helped by the treachery of Christians among the city’s defenders.
  • A new revolt of Norman barons begins in Apulia.
  • Normans capture Mazara in western Sicily.

1073 AD

  • (Apr 21) Pope Alexander II dies. He is succeeded on April 22 by St. Gregory VII — the great reforming pope of the Investiture Controversy.
  • Possible eruption of Vesuvius.
  • Robert Guiscard defeats the last of the rebels in Apulia. He falls gravely ill but recovers.
  • Robert Guiscard is chosen as protector of Amalfi. John III succeeds his father Sergius III as duke of Amalfi.

1074 AD

  • Robert Guiscard concludes a treaty with the Byzantine Emperor Michael VII, strengthened by an agreement for Robert’s daughter Helen to marry Michael’s son.
  • Pope Gregory VII attempts to create a new alliance against the Normans.
  • (Feb 7) Battle of Montesarchio. Pandulf IV, prince of Benevento, is defeated and killed by the Normans.
  • The diocese of Manfredonia is raised to the status of a Metropolitan Archdiocese.
  • A Saracen army from Tunisia lands at Nicotera to attempt to defeat the Normans.

1075 AD

  • Roger concludes an alliance with the Zirid Saracens, opening new trade relations with the North African Saracen states.
  • Normans capture Adrano (CT).

1076 AD

  • Conflict erupts between the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire: on February 14, Pope Gregory VII excommunicates Emperor Henry IV.
  • (Dec 13) Normans under Robert Guiscard and Richard I of Capua capture the city of Salerno. Normans occupy the Cilento area of southern Campania.
  • Normans begin construction on the castle of Aci Castello (CT), completed in 1081.

1077 AD

  • (Jan 28) Canossa. Emperor Henry IV, after meeting as a penitent with Pope Gregory VII at Canossa, has his sentence of excommunication lifted.
  • Robert Guiscard and Richard of Capua form an alliance.
  • First documentary evidence for a bishop of Anglona. The Norman church at Altavilla Milicia, near Palermo, is built.

1078 AD

  • (Mar 31) Byzantine Emperor Michael VII abdicates and enters a monastery. He is succeeded by Nikephoros III.
  • Gisulf II, last Lombard Prince of Salerno, surrenders to Robert Guiscard. With the fall of the Principality of Salerno, all the former Lombard states in southern Italy have been absorbed by the Norman power. Robert makes Salerno the capital of his duchy of Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily.
  • Robert Guiscard seizes Benevento and becomes prince. A new barons’ revolt breaks out against him.
  • Richard of Capua dies. Jordan I becomes prince of Capua.

1079 AD

  • Roger captures Taormina.
  • Severely cold weather in the principality of Salerno causes rivers to freeze over, resulting in an outbreak of illness and economic hardship.

1080 AD

  • Henry IV moves against Pope Gregory VII, who seeks help from Robert Guiscard.
  • (June 29) Treaty of Ceprano. The pope meets Robert at Ceprano, confirming the grants made by Nicholas II and extending them to the conquests made since.
  • The cathedral of Acerenza is founded by Archbishop Arnando. The Cathedral of Salerno is founded by Robert Guiscard, who scavenges the abandoned site of Paestum for treasures to decorate it.
  • The list of bishops begins for the diocese of Frigento.
  • Saracens attack Rome.

1081 AD

  • Robert Guiscard returns Benevento to the papacy.
  • (May) Robert Guiscard and his son Bohemond invade Byzantine Illyria (Albania), occupying the island of Corfu.
  • Byzantine emperor Nikephoros III is deposed and retires to a monastery, dying soon afterwards. Alexius I Comnenus seizes power in Constantinople and marches against the Normans in Illyria.
  • (Oct 18) Battle of Durazzo (Dyrrhachium). Normans under Robert Guiscard defeat the Byzantines under Alexius I Comnenus and advance into Macedonia.
  • Richard II becomes Prince of Aversa.

1082 AD

  • Emperor Henry IV invades Italy and besieges Pope Gregory VII in Rome.
  • A new barons’ revolt in Apulia forces Robert Guiscard to return to Italy, leaving the Norman army in Illyria under the command of Bohemond.
  • Sergius VI becomes duke of Naples.
  • Desiderius becomes the earliest bishop of Lacedonia whose name has survived.
  • Normans build a castle at Sperlinga, near Enna, in south-central Sicily.

1083 AD

  • (June) Pope Gregory VII is besieged in the Castel Sant’Angelo in Rome.
  • Normans under Bohemond lay siege to Larissa but are forced to retreat as Alexius Comnenus advances with a Byzantine army.
  • Robert Guiscard crushes the baronial revolt in Apulia.
  • Epidemic at the monastery at Cava (mod. Cava de’ Tirreni [SA]) in Campania — a malady causing fever and mumps, with infestations of lice. The illness claims the lives of 9 brothers, 2 oblates, and 4 lay servants.

1084 AD

  • Henry IV places his own candidate, Clement III, on the papal throne — who in turn crowns him as Emperor on March 31.
  • Robert Guiscard leads a Norman force to Rome to rescue Pope Gregory VII from Henry IV. The Normans proceed to sack the city upon their arrival. Gregory VII leaves Rome with Robert and goes into exile at Salerno.
  • Robert Guiscard inflicts a major defeat on the Venetian fleet, then returns to take command of Norman forces in Illyria.
  • Reginald, son of Geoffrey Ridell, succeeds his father as duke of Gaeta.
  • Famine in Italy claims many lives.
  • The Cathedral of S. Matteo is built at Salerno by Robert Guiscard — its building material taken from the ruins of Paestum, including 28 columns used to encompass the church’s atrium.

1085 AD

  • (May 25) Pope St. Gregory VII dies in exile in Salerno, interred in the cathedral of S. Matteo.
  • (July 15) Robert Guiscard dies at Durazzo in Illyria. His son Roger Borsa succeeds him as Count of Apulia and Calabria — and Bohemond revolts. With Guiscard’s death, Roger I becomes the principal Norman leader in southern Italy. The Normans withdraw from Corfu.
  • Normans under Roger I and his son Jordan lay siege to Syracuse. Calabria is invaded by the Saracens under ben Arwet.

1086 AD

  • (May 24) Victor III is elected pope but does not go to Rome to be consecrated. Originally named Dauferius, he is the son of Prince Landulf V of Benevento and the candidate of Prince Jordan I of Capua.
  • Roger defeats the Saracens in a naval battle off Syracuse, then captures the city. The Saracen leader ben Arwet falls in battle.
  • Normans capture Qalat al Nissa and take Enna from the Saracens.

1087 AD

  • (May 9) Victor III is finally consecrated as pope in Rome — then immediately withdraws to Monte Cassino. Convinced to return, he finds himself caught up in factional conflict with the antipope Clement III.
  • (Aug) Victor III calls a synod at Benevento which excommunicates the antipope Clement III, bans lay investiture, and calls for a crusade against the Saracens in Africa. Before the synod completes, Victor becomes seriously ill; he goes to Monte Cassino and dies on September 16. (Sept) Oderisio I becomes abbot of Monte Cassino.
  • Normans under Roger I capture Kerkent, renaming it Girgenti (mod. Agrigento), and capture Qas’r Ianni, renaming it Castrogiovanni (mod. Enna).
  • The Basilica of San Nicola is founded at Bari — built specifically to house the relics of St. Nicholas of Myra, stolen by Barian sailors in Anatolia. The relics arrived at Bari on May 9 (alt. date 1097).
  • (Sept) Earthquake strikes Apulia.

1088 AD

  • (Mar 12) Urban II becomes pope.
  • (Mar) Gisulf — formerly Prince Gisulf II of Salerno — becomes duke of Amalfi for a very short time.
  • Bohemond becomes prince of Taranto.
  • The cathedral at Otranto is built.

1089 AD

  • Pope Urban II holds a synod at Melfi. Bohemond and Roger Borsa agree to divide Apulia; Bohemond is confirmed as Prince of Taranto.
  • (Apr 20) The Normans take Amalfi.
  • Pope Urban II consecrates the Basilica of San Nicola at Bari.
  • Judith, wife of Count Roger I, dies. Roger marries Adelaide del Vasto.
  • Elia becomes archbishop of Bari.

1090 AD

  • Normans capture Butera and Noto, completing the conquest of Sicily (alt. date 1091).

1091 AD

  • Jordan I of Capua dies. Richard II becomes prince of Capua — then Lando IV deposes him and takes the title.
  • Upon Jordan I’s death, Gaeta rebels; Landulf becomes duke of Gaeta.
  • Count Roger I captures Malta from the Saracens. He imposes new taxation on the Saracen population but allows them to remain under the control of their own rulers (alt. date 1090).

1092 AD

  • Lando IV seizes control of Capua and claims the title of prince in opposition to Richard II.

1093 AD

  • The diocese of Mazara del Vallo is established.
  • Pope Urban II holds a council at Troia in Apulia.

1094 AD

  • Count Roger I helps his nephew Roger put down the rebellion of Grantmesnil at Castrovillari.

1095 AD

  • Pope Urban II convenes the Council of Clermont, where the First Crusade is preached. Peter the Hermit preaches the First Crusade at Bari.

1096 AD

  • A popular revolt drives the Normans out of Amalfi. The rebels elect the sebastos Marinus Sebastus — a member of the ducal Sergi family of Naples and the Capuano family of Amalfi — as duke of Amalfi.

1097 AD

  • Bohemond joins the First Crusade — on his way to becoming Prince of Antioch.
  • Roger Borsa takes control of Capua.
  • John VI becomes duke of Naples.

1098 AD

  • Pope Urban II convenes the Council of Bari, unsuccessfully attempting to resolve the differences between the Greek and Latin churches over the filioque controversy.
  • Urban II promises Roger I that he will send no papal legates to Sicily without Roger’s consent — the origin of the famous “Sicilian legateship.”
  • (May) Richard II besieges Capua for 40 days, retakes the city, and is restored as prince.

1099 AD

  • (July 29) Pope Urban II dies. He is succeeded on August 14 by Paschal II.
  • Bronze doors created in Constantinople are installed at the cathedral of S. Matteo at Salerno.

1100 AD

  • Marinus Sebastus is deposed as duke of Amalfi. Amalfi is permanently annexed by the Normans.
  • Avellino becomes the fief of Riccardo dell’Aquila.
  • The cathedral of Nicastro [CZ] is restored. Built on the site of an ancient temple, the earlier cathedral had been pillaged by a Saracen attack.

Key Themes of the 11th Century

  1. From Mercenaries to Masters
    • Norman pilgrims broke the siege of Salerno (1016); mercenaries fought for Lombard rebels (1017–18); Aversa became the first Norman state (1029–30); Melfi fell (1041); and William “Iron Arm” was proclaimed count at Matera (1043). Within one generation, hired swords had become a ruling dynasty.
  2. Civitate and Papal Legitimacy
    • The Normans destroyed a papal army at Civitate (1053) and took the pope prisoner — then treated him with respect and won recognition. Six years later at Melfi (1059), Nicholas II invested Richard with Capua and Robert Guiscard with Apulia, Calabria, and a Sicily he did not yet hold.
  3. The End of Byzantine Italy
    • A revolving door of Catapans — more than two dozen across the century — could not hold the line. The fall of Bari (1071) ended five centuries of Eastern Roman rule in Italy, and Guiscard then carried the war into the Empire itself at Durazzo (1081).
  4. The Conquest of Sicily
    • From Roger’s 60-knight raid (1060) through Messina (1061), Cerami (1063), Palermo (1072), Syracuse (1086), and finally Butera and Noto (1090), the thirty-year conquest returned Sicily to Christian rule — with Malta added in 1091.
  5. The Last Lombards
    • Guaimar IV briefly lorded over Amalfi, Gaeta, and Naples (1039) before his assassination (1052); Capua fell to Richard of Aversa (1058); and with Gisulf II’s surrender of Salerno (1078), every Lombard state in the south had passed to the Normans.
  6. Popes, Emperors, and Schism
    • The century of Benedict IX selling the papacy, the Council of Sutri (1046), the Great Schism (1054), Canossa (1077), Guiscard’s sack of Rome to rescue Gregory VII (1084), and finally Urban II preaching the First Crusade (1095) — with south-Italian Normans like Bohemond marching at its head.

By 1100 AD, the transformation was total: Byzantine Italy was gone, Lombard Italy was gone, Saracen Sicily was gone. In their place stood Norman states — Roger Borsa’s duchy, Bohemond’s Taranto, Richard II’s Capua, and Count Roger I’s Sicily — still divided among cousins, but holding everything. The final act, from 1101 to 1130, unites those pieces under Roger II and ends with a crown: the Kingdom of Sicily.