Uncategorized

9th Century AD – The Saracens Take Sicily

/

The 9th century AD belonged to the invaders. In 827 the Aghlabid Saracens of Tunisia landed at Mazara, and over the following decades they took Sicily piece by piece — Palermo in 831, Messina in 842, Enna in 859 after a thirty-year siege, and finally Syracuse in 878, its great cathedral converted into a mosque. On the mainland, a Saracen emirate held Bari for a quarter century, raiders sacked the basilicas of St. Peter and St. Paul outside Rome, and the monastery of Monte Cassino was destroyed. Meanwhile the Carolingian empire of Charlemagne’s heirs divided, reunited, and dissolved into civil war, and the Lombard south splintered — Benevento against Salerno, Capua against Naples, with Christian dukes hiring Saracen mercenaries against their Christian neighbors. Out of the wreckage came new powers: the Sergi dynasty of Naples, the seafaring republics of Amalfi and Gaeta, and a resurgent Byzantium that retook Bari and rebuilt its rule over Apulia and Calabria.

Full Chronological Summary (9th Century AD)

New Dioceses (9th Century)

  • Matera
  • Marsi

801 AD

  • Anthimus (Anthemus) succeeds Theophylactus II as Byzantine duke of Naples.

802 AD

  • (Oct 31) Byzantine Empress Irene is deposed and exiled to Lesbos. She dies the next year. Nicephorus I becomes emperor.

803 AD

  • The Pax Nicephori, a treaty between Charlemagne and Nicephorus I, establishes the boundaries between the two “Roman” empires. The treaty does not, however, include Byzantine recognition of Charlemagne’s recent crowning as Roman Emperor.

805 AD

  • A 10-year truce and trade treaty is concluded between Constantine, the Byzantine governor of Sicily, and Ibrahim I ibn al-Aghlab, the Saracen Aghlabid Emir of Ifriqiya (Tunisia). The treaty does not prevent raids originating from other Saracen states, nor does it extend to protecting other islands like Corsica and Sardinia.

806 AD

  • Grimoald IV becomes prince of Benevento.
  • Saracens sack Nola.
  • Ademaro, the Frankish Count of Genoa, battles the Saracens on Corsica.

807 AD

  • (c) Marcus becomes bishop of Otranto.

810 AD

  • (July 8) Death of King Pippin of Italy. He is succeeded by his son Bernard.
  • (Oct 1) Unsuccessful assassination attempt against Emperor Nicephorus I.

811 AD

  • (July 26) Nicephorus I is defeated and killed by the Bulgars at Pliska. His son Staurakios is quickly crowned despite being severely wounded in the same battle. On October 2 he is forced to abdicate in favor of his brother-in-law Michael I Rangabe. Staurakios retires to a monastery where, on January 11, 812, he finally dies from the effects of his wound.

812 AD

  • The Byzantine emperor calls on the cities of the duchy of Naples to send ships to join the imperial fleet for a campaign against the Saracens of Sicily. Duke Anthimus of Naples ignores the order, although the semi-autonomous cities of Amalfi and Gaeta do send ships.
  • (c) Mt. Etna erupts.
  • Abdallah I, son and successor of Ibrahim I ibn al-Aghlab as Aghlabid Emir of Tunisia, gathers a large fleet and army intending to conquer Sicily and the Italian south.
    • The invaders are ultimately defeated thanks to the fleets of Amalfi and Gaeta, and to a great storm which sinks many Saracen ships.
    • The invasion fleet still manages to seize the island of Lampedusa and raid Sicily, Ischia, Ponza, Reggio Calabria, Sardinia, Corsica, and Nice (to 813).

813 AD

  • A second trade treaty is concluded between the Byzantine governor of Sicily and the Saracen Aghlabids of Tunisia.
  • Ischia is ravaged by the Saracens.
  • (June 22) Emperor Michael I Rangabe is defeated by the Bulgars. He is deposed by a revolt on July 12 and replaced on the throne by Leo V. Michael is allowed to enter a monastery; his sons are castrated and forced to become monks.
  • Emperor Leo V deposes the Patriarch Nikephoros of Constantinople and reinstitutes iconoclasm. Nikephoros responds by excommunicating Leo.

814 AD

  • (Jan 28) Charlemagne dies of pleurisy. Although he had named his son Louis the Pious as his sole heir, the Carolingian Empire is soon divided into three states.
  • Possible eruption of Mt. Etna.

815 AD

  • Emperor Leo V convokes a synod in support of iconoclasm. The synod is denounced by Patriarch Nikephoros.

816 AD

  • Byzantine troop strength in the Theme of Sicily: 2,000 (to 842).
  • (June 12) Pope Leo III dies. He is succeeded, on June 22, by Stephen IV (V).
  • Louis the Pious is crowned Emperor by Pope Stephen IV (V).

817 AD

  • Sico (Sicone) I becomes prince of Benevento.
  • Emperor Louis the Pious divides the Carolingian Empire between his three sons: Lothair becomes co-emperor and receives the bulk of the territory, including Italy; Pepin becomes King of Aquitaine; and Louis the German becomes King of East Francia, receiving Bavaria and some nearby lands.
  • (Jan 24) Pope Stephen IV (V) dies. He is succeeded, on January 25, by Paschal I.
  • (Dec) Apollinare becomes abbot of Monte Cassino.

818 AD

  • (c) Theoctistus is appointed by the Patrician of Sicily as Byzantine duke of Naples without imperial approval.
  • Bernard, King of Italy, revolts against Louis the Pious. The revolt is crushed and Bernard receives a death sentence. Louis commutes the sentence; Bernard is blinded and imprisoned, and dies in 819.

819 AD

  • Saracens under the command of Mohammed ibn-Adballad launch a new attack on Sicily.

820 AD

  • (Dec 24) Emperor Leo V is assassinated in the cathedral of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. He is succeeded by Michael II.
  • Eruption on Ischia.

821 AD

  • The Patrician of Sicily appoints Theodore II as Byzantine duke of Naples without the emperor’s approval. Theodore is not well received and is soon driven from Naples. The locally chosen Stephen III becomes duke.

822 AD

  • Civil war breaks out between Emperor Michael II and rebel leader Thomas the Slav. The struggle severely weakens the Byzantine military and opens new opportunities for the Saracens to expand.

823 AD

  • First historical reference to the town of Gaeta, then a town under the rulership of hereditary hypati or consuls. Although today attached to the region of Lazio, Gaeta is historically and culturally a part of Campania.

824 AD

  • (Feb 11) Pope Paschal I dies. He is succeeded, on May 11, by Eugene II.
  • Byzantine rebel Thomas the Slav surrenders to Michael II and is executed.

827 AD

  • Revolt of Euphemius in Sicily. Euphemius, Byzantine turmarch of the theme of Sicily and a noted general, abducts and rapes a nun. Emperor Michael II orders Gregoras, the strategos of Syracuse, to arrest Euphemius, cut off his nose, and send him in chains to Constantinople.
    • Before this can be accomplished, Euphemius rises in revolt, kills the strategos, seizes Syracuse, and declares himself Emperor. A strong fleet dispatched from Constantinople soon defeats him.
    • Eluding capture, Euphemius escapes to Tunisia and takes refuge with the Saracen Aghlabid Emir Ziyadat Allah. He convinces the Emir that Sicily can be conquered, promising a large annual tribute if Ziyadat Allah sets him up as Emperor there. The Emir agrees to mount a large expedition — with the secret intention of conquering the island for himself.
    • Ziyadat Allah declares a holy war against the Byzantines and places his forces under the command of the 70-year-old lawyer and holy man Ased-ibn-Forat (Furat), who rallies an Islamic army of Arabs, Berbers, Moors, Spanish Saracens, and even Persians.
  • (June 18) The Saracen Aghlabids of North Africa invade Sicily. The invasion fleet of 100 Saracen ships, plus Euphemius’s ships, reaches Mazara on the southwest coast, landing 10,000 infantry and 700 cavalry.
    • Euphemius accompanies the Saracens believing the Sicilians will rally to him. Most reject him as a traitor and criminal.
    • (July 15) Photinus, the Byzantine strategos, attacks the invaders near Platana but suffers a major defeat, losing most of his army. He escapes to Enna and eventually to Calabria, dying soon afterwards. The Saracen victory is attributed largely to the religious fervor Ased-ibn-Forat stirred in his followers — a story, probably apocryphal, claims Forat led the charge himself and slew so many enemies that his hand became glued to his lance by their dried blood.
    • Saracens capture Agrigentum and rename it Kerkent (or 828), then continue east toward Syracuse.
    • Saracens besiege Syracuse. Encamped outside the city, their army is struck by a severe plague — probably malaria from the marshes along the river Anapo. When the sickness claims the life of Ased-ibn-Forat, the Saracens lose heart and lift the siege.
  • Abu ‘Abdallah Asad ibn Furat ibn Sinan becomes Saracen Aghlabid governor of Sicily.
  • (Aug) Pope Eugene II dies. He is succeeded by Valentine, who dies after a reign of less than 40 days. In September Gregory IV becomes Pope.
  • (c) Saracens introduce spinach to Sicily.

828 AD

  • Having retreated from Syracuse, the Saracens unsuccessfully lay siege to Enna.
  • Saracen leader al-Kamuk founds Alcamo (Alqama, Alkamuk, Alqamah) in western Sicily (alt. date c972).
  • Muhammad ibn al-Jawari becomes Saracen Aghlabid governor of Sicily.
  • SS. Philaretus and Oliva are martyred by the Saracens at Palermo.
  • (Nov/Dec) Deusdedit becomes abbot of Monte Cassino.

829 AD

  • Castra Nicia is captured by the Saracens, who rename it Qalat al Nissa (“Fortress of the Women”) — a name that eventually evolves into Caltanissetta.
  • Zuhair ibn Ghauth becomes Saracen Aghlabid governor of Sicily.
  • (Oct 2) Emperor Michael II dies. He is succeeded by his son Theophilus.
  • Saracens capture Mineo and Mazzara.
  • Byzantine Greek natives along the Calabrian/Bruttian coast flee inland to escape Saracen raiders.
  • Saracens attack Civitavecchia near Rome.
  • Regular list of bishops at Amalfi begins.

830 AD

  • Saracens invade the Roman Campagna. The basilicas of St. Peter and St. Paul are sacked.

831 AD

  • Emperor Theophilus withdraws troops from Sicily to help repel the Saracen invasion of Cappadocia, weakening the island’s defenses to the point where the defenders can no longer effectively resist.
  • A new wave of 30,000 Saracen invaders — of North African and Spanish origin, sailing from Iberia — arrives in northwestern Sicily.
  • Abu Fihr Muhammad ibn ‘Abdallah ibn al-Aghlab becomes Saracen Aghlabid governor of Sicily.
  • (Sept 9) Panormus (Palermo) falls to the Iberian Saracens. They rename the city Bal’harm (alt. date 832).

832 AD

  • Emperor Theophilus issues a strong decree forbidding the use of icons.
  • Sicard becomes prince of Benevento.
  • Bonus becomes Byzantine duke of Naples.
  • King Pepin of Aquitaine and King Louis the German rebel against Emperor Louis the Pious.

833 AD

  • Ziyadat Allah, emir of Tunisia, sends his cousin Abu-Fihr to command the Saracens in Sicily.

834 AD

  • Leo becomes Byzantine duke of Naples. He is deposed by Andrew II in September. The payment of tribute to Sicard, the Lombard prince of Benevento, is immediately halted.
  • Ilderico becomes abbot of Monte Cassino. He is soon replaced by Autperto.

835 AD

  • Frazzanò [ME] is founded by refugees from the town of Castro fleeing the Saracen invaders. The name derives from the Sicilian dialect word fratstsa or fradzdza, meaning “acorn,” for the abundance of acorn-bearing beech trees in the area.
  • Saracens under Ziyadat Allah reach Taormina.
  • (May–July) Sicard, prince of Benevento, lays siege to Naples. The siege is lifted after a new peace treaty is negotiated between Sicard and Andrew II. During the siege, Sicard steals the relics of San Gennaro and has them transported to Benevento.
  • Fadl ibn Ya’qub becomes Saracen Aghlabid governor of Sicily. He is soon replaced by Abu’l-Aghlab Ibrahim ibn ‘Abdallah.

836 AD

  • Within months of signing a peace treaty with Duke Andrew II, Prince Sicard of Benevento breaks the agreement and begins a new siege of Naples.
    • Desperate to defend his city from the Lombards, Andrew hires Saracens from Sicily as mercenaries — becoming the first Italian prince to do so.
    • The siege is finally lifted when Andrew and Sicard sign a new peace treaty, known as the Pactum Sicardi.
  • (July 4) Duke Andrew II also makes new treaties with the duchies of Amalfi and Sorrento — five-year accords providing Greek merchants from Naples, Amalfi, and Sorrento freedom to travel safely through the principality of Benevento.
  • Saracen pirates raid Brindisi.
  • Saracen raiders strike deep into the Adriatic, attacking the Republic of Venice.

837 AD

  • Less than a year after the new peace treaty, war again breaks out between Andrew of Naples and Sicard of Benevento. As before, Andrew hires Aghlabid Saracen mercenaries.
  • Saracens capture Tricala (mod. Caltabellotta) in Sicily.
  • Bassacio becomes abbot of Monte Cassino.

838 AD

  • Saracens take Brindisi from the Beneventan Lombards.

839 AD

  • (July–Aug) Andrew II of Naples appeals to Lothair I, the Frankish king of Italy, for help against Beneventan aggression. Lothair sends a noble named Contard with a force to Naples — who soon begins acting like an enemy rather than an ally. Andrew tries to defuse the situation by offering Contard the hand of his daughter Eupraxia. Contard does not respond immediately.
  • Radelchis I assassinates Sicard and becomes prince of Benevento.
  • Amalfi gains its independence under Byzantine suzerainty. Pietro becomes the first comes (Count) of Amalfi. Other sources state that Amalfi was instead conquered by the Lombard Duchy of Benevento this year and did not gain independence until later.
  • Constantine becomes hypatus/consul of Gaeta. The title hypatus is a Latinized form of the Greek hypatos, used by Byzantine officials who controlled various Italian city-states between the 9th and 11th centuries.
  • Saracens pillage Lipari and massacre much of the population. The relics of St. Bartholomew are transferred to Benevento for safekeeping, and most surviving residents abandon the island.
  • Saracens launch raids from Sicily into Calabria.
  • Byzantines in the theme of Sicily increase their headquarters there from 2 to 9.
  • Louis (the future Emperor Louis II), eldest son of Lothair, is designated King of Italy.
  • Saracens capture Taranto.

840 AD

  • (June 20) Emperor Louis the Pious dies. The western empire is soon plunged into civil war as his sons — Lothair, Charles the Bald, and Louis the German — fight for dominance.
  • After the assassination of Sicard, the people of Salerno revolt against the usurper Radelchis and proclaim Siconulf, Sicard’s brother, as their prince. Salerno becomes an independent Lombard principality. A civil war will rage between Benevento and Salerno until 849.
  • Landulf I, the gastald of Capua, allies himself with Siconulf of Salerno against Radelchis of Benevento.
  • (Mar) Contard deposes and executes Andrew II, seizing the Duchy of Naples for himself. The Neapolitan population drives him out after only 3 days.
    • The Neapolitans choose Sergius I, the dux of Cumae (then a dependency of Naples), as their new Duke and magister militum. Sergius founds a new dynasty — the Sergi — who will rule Naples until 1137.
    • Caesar “the Brave”, son of Duke Sergius I, becomes Admiral of the Neapolitan fleet.
  • Saracens capture Thermae Selinuntinae (mod. Sciacca [AG]).
  • Saracens capture Santa Severina [KR], holding the town until 886.
  • Inhabitants of Formiae flee to Gaeta to escape the Saracens.
  • Saracens defeat a Venetian fleet in the Gulf of Taranto, then continue into the Adriatic, attacking the Po delta and Ancona.

841 AD

  • Saracens destroy Marcianise in Campania. Some sources state Marcianise was destroyed during the same raid that destroyed old Capua, which would date it to 841 — though the same source incorrectly dates the attack on Capua to 861, two decades too late.
  • Radelchis of Benevento sends his Saracen mercenaries against Capua. The ancient city is destroyed.
    • Only the church of Santa Maria Maggiore (founded AD 497) survives the carnage. Around it a new town, Santa Maria in Capua Vetere, eventually arises.
    • The survivors of old Capua move to the site of the now-abandoned Casilinum and there refound Capua (alt. date 840).
  • Saracens advance to Quarnaro, destroying a Venetian fleet at the island of Sansego.
  • Sergius I, duke of Naples, continues the policy started by Andrew II of forming alliances with the Saracens against their fellow Christians.

842 AD

  • (Jan 20) Byzantine emperor Theophilus dies. He is succeeded by his 3-year-old son Michael III.
  • The Saracen Emir of Palermo, Abu-al-Aghlab, captures Messina from the Byzantines, renaming the city Msna. The Saracens receive help from Naples — despite that duchy being both a Christian state and largely Byzantine Greek in population (alt. dates 831, 843).
  • Saracens destroy Formia. The survivors escape to Gaeta (alt. date 846).
  • Radelchis, Lombard prince of Benevento, is overthrown by the Saracen mercenaries he hired to attack Siconulf of Salerno.
  • (Apr 10) Saracens capture Bari with the help of Naples, using the city as a base for further raids along the coasts of Apulia and Campania.
  • Locust swarms plague Sicily.

843 AD

  • Treaty of Verdun ends the conflict between the heirs of Louis the Pious. The Carolingian empire is permanently divided. Lothair retains the title of Emperor and rule over Italy.
  • Iconoclasm ends in the Byzantine empire.
  • Landulf becomes the first bishop of Capua Nova (to 879).
  • Lando I becomes count of Capua.

844 AD

  • (Jan 25) Pope Gregory IV dies. He is succeeded by Sergius II.
  • (June 15) Louis II is formally crowned King of Italy at Rome by Pope Sergius II.
  • St. Angelarius, Bishop of Canosa, transfers the relics of Sts. Rufinus, Memorus, and Sabinus from Canosa to Bari. Pope Sergius II names him Bishop of both Canosa and Bari.

845 AD

  • Modica falls to the Saracens, who rename it Mudiquh.
  • Saracens are defeated in a naval battle by the allied fleets of Naples, Amalfi, Gaeta, and Sorrento, under the command of Duke Sergius I.

846 AD

  • Byzantines suffer a major defeat by the Saracens near Enna. Sources state the Greek losses at 9,000 killed.
  • Lentini falls to the Saracens.
  • A large Saracen fleet (73 vessels and 10,000 men) attacks Ponza and Capo Miseno, then sails north and, on August 23, lands at the mouth of the Tiber.
    • Opposed by a Christian alliance of Naples, Amalfi, Gaeta, and Sorrento, the Saracens nevertheless occupy Ostia and Porto. The Christian defenders of the castle of Gregoriopolis retreat before them.
    • After defeating a papal force of Saxons, Frisons, and Franks in the countryside, the Saracens reach the suburbs of Rome. The basilicas of St. Peter and St. Paul, outside the city walls, are sacked. Unable to breach the Aurelian wall, the raiders advance inland as far as Subiaco.
    • Upon learning of the advance of a relief army under King Louis II, the Saracens withdraw from the area around Rome. Moving south, they plunder Terracina and Fondi and lay siege to Gaeta. The siege is broken by a violent storm and the arrival of the allied Christian fleet, whose Neapolitan contingent is commanded by Admiral Caesar “the Brave” (alt. date 847).
  • The diocese of Gaeta is established when Constantine, bishop of Formiae, flees there from the Saracens.

847 AD

  • Saracen Berbers defeat Pandone, the Beneventan gastald of Bari, and capture the city. A Berber emirate is established at Bari, with Khalfun as the first emir.
  • (Jan) Pope Sergius II dies. He is succeeded by Leo IV.
  • Duke Sergius I of Naples and Duke Guy I of Spoleto arrange a peace agreement to end the war between the Lombard princes Siconulf of Salerno and Radelchis I of Benevento.
  • Ischia is ravaged by the Saracens.
  • Earthquake damages Isernia.

848 AD

  • As a result of the recent Saracen raids, Pope Leo IV encircles the Vatican with walls.
  • Leontini (mod. Lentini [SR]) is destroyed by the Saracens (alt. date 847).
  • Ragusa is taken by the Saracens.
  • Famine in Sicily.
  • Amalfi enters into an alliance with the Papacy against the Saracens.
  • Louis II, King of Italy, drives the Saracens from Benevento.
  • (June) Earthquake in Samnium (Abruzzo).
  • (c) The earliest definite evidence for the existence of the medical school at Salerno dates from 848 to 856.

849 AD

  • First historical mention of the town of Tricarico (MT), at that time a Lombard county included in the gastaldato of Salerno.
  • Battle of Ostia. A massive Saracen fleet approaching Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber, intent on sacking Rome, is surprised by an allied fleet of Papal, Neapolitan, and Gaetan ships. The Christian fleet defeats the Saracens, who are forced to retreat.
    • The Neapolitan contingent is commanded by Duke Sergius I and his son, Admiral Caesar.
    • Saracens taken prisoner at the battle are put to work as slave labor, helping to strengthen the fortifications of Rome.
  • Saracens plunder Luni and Capo Teulada on Sardinia.

850 AD

  • (c) Pomarico (MT) is founded by the Byzantines.
  • Lothair I raises his son Louis II the Younger to be co-emperor.
  • Sergius I appoints his eldest son Gregory III co-Duke of Naples. Gregory is described as a well-educated man fluent in both Greek and Latin.
  • St. Athanasius I, second son of Sergius I, becomes bishop of Naples.
  • Sergius I of Naples and Lando I of Capua go to war with one another.

851 AD

  • Radelgar becomes prince of Benevento.
  • Western Emperor Louis II marches into Campania and forces Benevento and Salerno to make peace. Siconulf is officially recognized as prince of Salerno.
  • Siconulf, the newly confirmed prince, dies. He is succeeded by his son Sico II — given the appellation “II” because Salerno had formerly been part of the principality of Benevento, where Sico “I” reigned from 817 to 832.
  • Abu’l-Aghlab Abbas ibn Fadl ibn Ya’qub ibn Fezara becomes Saracen Aghlabid governor of Sicily.

852 AD

  • Muffarag-ibn-Sallám becomes emir of Bari.
  • Saracens launch a new series of raids on the coasts of Calabria and Campania (to 853).

853 AD

  • Peter becomes prince of Salerno. He is soon replaced by Adhemar.
  • Camarina is sacked by the Saracens.
  • (Aug 31) Earthquake at Messina.

854 AD

  • Adelchis succeeds his brother Radelgar as prince of Benevento.
  • Butera is besieged by the Saracens.

855 AD

  • (Mar 2) Emperor Lothair I dies. His son Louis II is now sole emperor in the west.
  • (July 17) Pope Leo IV dies. He is succeeded, on September 29, by Benedict III.

856 AD

  • Sawdan becomes emir of Bari.
  • Saracens raid throughout the southern Italian mainland, attacking Isernia, Canosa, Capua, and Teano.
  • Major flooding in Rome, followed by an epidemic, possibly of diphtheria.
  • Bardas becomes regent for Byzantine emperor Michael III.
  • (Apr) Bertario becomes abbot of Monte Cassino.

858 AD

  • (Apr 7) Pope Benedict III dies. He is succeeded, on April 24, by Nicholas I.
  • Aghlab, first Saracen governor of Sicily, dies at Palermo. He is succeeded by Abas.

859 AD

  • Saracens under Abas ibn Fahdi capture Enna, ending a 30-year siege. They rename it Qasryānnih (Kasr Yannas). The besiegers managed to enter the town through an unguarded sewer.
  • Republic of Amalfi established. It survives until 958.
  • (May 8) An allied expedition of 7,000 troops from Naples, Salerno, Amalfi, and Suessola — commanded by co-Duke Gregory III and Admiral Caesar of Naples with their brother-in-law Landulf, gastald of Suessola — marches against Capua.
    • The ruling Count of Capua, Lando I, afflicted with paralysis, turns command of the Capuan army over to his son Lando II.
    • Battle is joined at the bridge of Teodemondo over the river Volturno. The Capuans are victorious; Caesar is taken prisoner along with 800 of his soldiers. He is later released and continues to serve as Admiral of Naples until 870.

860 AD

  • Vesuvius erupts.

861 AD

  • Lando II becomes count of Capua. He is soon succeeded by Pando “the Rapacious”.
  • Guaifer becomes prince of Salerno.
  • Ahmad ibn Ya’qub ibn Fezara becomes Saracen Aghlabid governor of Sicily.

862 AD

  • Pando, count of Capua, erects a fortified tower which forms the core of the city of Caserta.
  • Pandenulf succeeds his father Pando as count of Capua (alt. date 863).
  • ‘Abdallah ibn ‘Abbas ibn al-Fadl becomes Saracen Aghlabid governor of Sicily. He is soon replaced by Khafaja ibn Sufian ibn Sawada ibn Sufian ibn Salim.

863 AD

  • Pandenulf is deposed and replaced as count of Capua by his uncle Landulf II.
  • Heavy snowfall in Naples.

864 AD

  • Sergius I dies. Gregory III becomes sole duke of Naples.
  • Pope Nicholas I refuses to grant an annulment to Lothair II, brother of Emperor Louis II. In February, Louis II marches on Rome — but before he can act against the pope, he becomes seriously ill and makes peace instead.
  • St. Elias “the Cave-Dweller” is born at Reggio Calabria.

866 AD

  • Emperor Louis II achieves a major victory over the Saracens in southern Italy but cannot follow it up for lack of a fleet.
  • Duke Gregory III of Naples accompanies Louis II on his campaign against Capua, Salerno, and Amalfi. Gregory’s son Sergius serves briefly as prefect of Amalfi.
  • (Apr 21) Byzantine regent Bardas is murdered by Basil I on the order of Emperor Michael III. (May 26) Basil I is raised to the rank of co-emperor.
  • Noto is captured by the Saracens.
  • Docibilis I becomes ruler of Gaeta, believed to have gained power through a violent revolt against the previous co-hypati Constantine and his son Marinus. He does not initially take the title of hypatus/consul but rules as prefectus (prefect) (alt. date 867).

867 AD

  • (Sept 23/24) Byzantine Emperor Michael III is assassinated on the order of Basil I. Basil I is now sole emperor.
  • (Nov 13) Pope Nicholas I dies. He is succeeded, on December 14, by Adrian II.
  • Docibilis I, prefect of Gaeta, makes his son John I co-ruler.
  • Duke Gregory III of Naples renounces his loyalty to Emperor Louis II and forms a new alliance with the Byzantines, acknowledging Emperor Basil I as his suzerain and minting coins bearing Basil’s image.

868 AD

  • Aghlabid Saracens from Tunisia capture Malta.
  • High mortality rates are recorded in Naples for both humans and animals.
  • Emperor Louis II drives the Saracens from Matera, Venosa, and part of Calabria.

869 AD

  • Emperors Louis II and Basil I form an alliance against the Saracens.
  • Muhammad ibn Khafaja becomes Saracen Aghlabid governor of Sicily.

870 AD

  • (Jan) Duke Gregory III of Naples falls seriously ill and turns the government over to his son Sergius II. Gregory dies in March.
    • Sergius II continues the Neapolitan tradition of friendly relations with the Saracens, and is excommunicated for it by Pope John VIII.
    • When his brothers — Bishop Athanasius I and Admiral Caesar — openly challenge his pro-Saracen policy, Sergius reacts harshly: Caesar is stripped of his position and imprisoned, and Bishop Athanasius is exiled to a small island.
  • Saracens sack Croton, killing the city’s bishop and many others who had taken refuge in the cathedral.
  • Saracens raid into northern Italy and sack Ravenna.
  • Malta is occupied by Aghlabid Saracens from Sicily.

871 AD

  • Sawdan, the Berber emir of Bari, is defeated by the Franks under Louis II, assisted by the Byzantine fleet. Bari comes under Frankish control, ending the emirate.
  • Muhammad ibn Abi Husayn becomes Saracen Aghlabid governor of Sicily. He is replaced for a short time by Ribbah ibn Ya’qub ibn Fezara, who in turn is succeeded by Abu ‘Abbas ibn Ya’qub ibn ‘Abdallah.

872 AD

  • (May 18) Louis II is crowned Emperor at Rome for a second time by Pope Adrian II.
  • Pope Adrian II dies. He is succeeded, on December 14, by John VIII.
  • Saracens make an unsuccessful attempt to capture Salerno, breaking off their siege at the approach of Louis II’s army. They retreat south into Calabria, pillaging several towns.
  • Bishop St. Athanasius is rescued from his exile by ships from Amalfi sent by Emperor Louis II. They sail for Rome, but Athanasius dies before arriving. He is buried in the catacombs of San Gennaro.
  • Ahmad ibn Ya’qub ibn Modha ibn Sawada ibn Sufian ibn Salim becomes Saracen Aghlabid governor of Sicily. He is soon replaced by Husayn ibn Ribbah.

873 AD

  • Locust swarms spread across Italy and France. The principalities of Benevento and Salerno see the bulk of their crops destroyed, resulting in widespread poverty throughout Italy.
  • Abu ‘Abbas ‘Abdallah ibn Muhammad ibn ‘Abdallah ibn al-Aghlab becomes Saracen Aghlabid governor of Sicily. He is soon replaced by Abu Malik Ahmad ibn ‘Umar ibn ‘Abdallah ibn Ibrahim I ibn al-Aghlab.

874 AD

  • Byzantines establish the thema of Langobardia (Langobardia minor), encompassing all the territory they control on the southern Italian mainland. They retake Bari from the Franks and make it the seat of a strategos. The thema is divided between the strategoi (military governors) of Apulia and of Calabria.
  • Plague in Rome.

875 AD

  • (Aug 12) Emperor Louis II dies. On December 29, his brother Charles II the Bald is crowned western emperor and King of Italy after bribing the church.

876 AD

  • (Aug 28) Louis the German, king of East Francia, dies. His three sons divide his kingdom; Carloman, the eldest, becomes king of Bavaria.
  • Pope John VIII travels to Campania to form an alliance with Capua and Salerno in preparation for war against the Saracens. At Traetto he also meets with Docibilis I of Gaeta, whom he had earlier excommunicated for making peace with the Saracens. The two rulers are unable to come to terms.
  • Basil I becomes Byzantine strategos at Bari. A Byzantine garrison is planted in the city.
  • Dja’far ibn Muhammad ibn Khafaja becomes Saracen Aghlabid governor of Sicily.

877 AD

  • Pope John VIII asks Charles the Bald for help against the Saracen attacks. In late June, Charles sets out for Italy with a small party and meets the Pope at Vercelli.
    • At the same time, Carloman of Bavaria enters eastern Lombardy with a large army. When Charles calls on his Frankish nobles to send troops, they refuse — their own lands are under attack from the Vikings. Charles abandons the campaign and turns for home.
    • (Oct 6) En route, Charles the Bald suddenly dies, possibly poisoned. The western imperial throne remains vacant until 890. He is succeeded as king of Western Francia, on December 8, by his son Louis the Stammerer. Charles’s nephew Carloman of Bavaria becomes king of Italy — the first German ruler to control the kingdom of Italy. Carloman is meanwhile forced to withdraw his army after an epidemic breaks out in its ranks.
  • Duke Sergius II of Naples is deposed by his brother Athanasius II, bishop of Naples. Sergius is blinded and sent as a prisoner to Rome.
  • Docibilis and John assume the title of hypatus/consul of Gaeta.
  • An affliction sweeps through Italy and into northern Europe, causing eye afflictions, coughing, and plague.

878 AD

  • Waifer becomes prince of Benevento.
  • Bishop Athanasius II becomes duke of Naples, having deposed his brother Sergius II. His seizure of power is supported by Pope John VIII, who believes Athanasius will finally break off the accord between Naples and the Saracens.
  • Saracens besiege and capture Syracuse.
    • During the siege the price of wheat in the city soars as supply dwindles. Instances of cannibalism are reported, spreading disease.
    • The city is finally captured and sacked. Its great cathedral is converted into a mosque.
  • al-Aghlab ibn Muhammad ibn al-Aghlab usurps the Saracen Aghlabid governorship of Sicily. He is soon ousted, and Husayn ibn Ribbah, governor from 872 to 873, is restored.

879 AD

  • (Apr 10) Louis the Stammerer, king of Western Francia, dies. His domain is divided between Louis III and Carloman.
  • Carloman (of Bavaria) suffers a severe stroke. Unable to rule, he abdicates and divides his domain between his brothers: Louis the Younger becomes king of Bavaria and Charles the Fat becomes king of Italy.
  • Landulf II, count of Capua, dies. In the succession crisis, Pope John VIII arranges for Pandenulf to be restored as count over the claim of Lando. In return, Pandenulf agrees to attack Docibilis I of Gaeta, the pope’s enemy — and captures the town of Formia.
  • Pope John VIII excommunicates Bishop/Duke Athanasius II of Naples for not breaking off Naples’s alliance with the Saracens.
  • Taormina falls to the Saracens.
  • Saracens sack Teano and Caserta and ravage the Roman Campagna.

880 AD

  • Carloman dies.
  • Guaimar I becomes prince of Salerno.
  • Hasan ibn Abbas becomes the Saracen Aghlabid governor in Sicily.

881 AD

  • (Feb 12) Charles the Fat, king of Italy, is crowned western emperor.
  • Radelchis II becomes prince of Benevento.
  • (c) Bishop/Duke Athanasius II takes control of Capua — putting him in the awkward position of being a vassal to Prince Guaimar I of Salerno.

882 AD

  • Pope John VIII dies. He is succeeded, on December 16, by Marinus I.
  • Lando III becomes count of Capua.
  • Agropoli, in Campania, is captured from the Byzantines by the Saracens, who turn the town into a base for launching raids deeper into Italy.
  • Docibilis I of Gaeta hires Saracen mercenaries from Agropoli in his war against Capua.
  • Muhammad ibn Fadl becomes the Saracen Aghlabid governor in Sicily.
  • Saracens capture Saepinum in Samnium.

883 AD

  • (Oct 22) The monastery of Monte Cassino is destroyed by the Saracens. The monks escape and take refuge at Teano. Angelario I becomes the new abbot (alt. date 884).
  • The Saracens plunder the Terra di Lavoro (alt. date 885).
  • Husayn ibn Ahmad becomes the Saracen Aghlabid governor in Sicily.

884 AD

  • (May 15) Pope Marinus I dies. He is succeeded, on May 17, by Adrian III.
  • Radelchis II is deposed and replaced by Aiulf II as prince of Benevento.
  • Theophilatus becomes Byzantine strategos at Bari.

885 AD

  • (Sept) Pope Adrian III dies. He is succeeded by Stephen V.
  • Landenulf I becomes count of Capua.
  • Bari is established as the seat of the Byzantine Catapan (governor) of Apulia.
  • Sawada ibn Muhammad ibn Khajafa becomes the Saracen Aghlabid governor in Sicily.

886 AD

  • (Aug 29) Byzantine Emperor Basil I dies. He is succeeded by his stepson Leo VI.
  • Trapezzi becomes Byzantine strategos at Bari.
  • Pope Stephen V lifts the excommunication of Bishop/Duke Athanasius II of Naples. Despite this, Athanasius renews his alliance with the Saracens; the infuriated pope threatens him with a blockade.
  • Abu ‘Abbas ibn ‘Ali becomes the Saracen Aghlabid governor in Sicily for a short time. His predecessor, Sawada ibn Muhammad ibn Khajafa, is reinstated.

887 AD

  • (Jan 7) Atenulf I becomes sole count of Capua with the help of Athanasius II of Naples.
  • Charles the Fat, having briefly reunited parts of the old Carolingian Empire, is deposed and his domain again divided: Odo, Count of Paris, takes Western Francia (France); Arnulf of Carinthia takes Eastern Francia (Germany); and Berengar of Friuli takes Italy.
  • Saracens sack Paestum. The survivors abandon the ancient city and resettle nearby on higher ground at Capaccio Vecchio.

888 AD

  • (Jan 13) Charles the Fat dies.
  • Constantine I becomes Byzantine strategos at Bari.
  • Despite their recent accord, Athanasius II of Naples and Atenulf I of Capua go to war over Liburnia. An indecisive battle is fought at S. Carzio on the river Clanio.

889 AD

  • Duke Guy III of Spoleto is crowned king of Italy by Pope Stephen V. Guy is the son of Guy II of Spoleto and Itta, daughter of Sico, Prince of Benevento.
  • Magyars (Hungarians) raid into Italy.

890 AD

  • Orso becomes prince of Benevento.
  • Creation of the Byzantine province of Lombardia in southern Italy.
  • Misenum, on the coast of Campania, is destroyed by the Saracens.
  • (Mar) Ragembrando becomes abbot of Teano (Monte Cassino).

891 AD

  • (May) Pope Stephen V crowns King Guy III as western Emperor.
  • Pope Stephen V dies. He is succeeded, on October 6, by Formosus.
  • The principality of Benevento is occupied by the Byzantines.
  • Sympaticius becomes Byzantine strategos at Bari.
  • Muhammad ibn Fadl, governor in Sicily in 882–883, is reinstated in that position.

892 AD

  • Guy III forces Pope Formosus to crown Lambert II as western co-emperor. Lambert is Guy’s son by Ageltrude, daughter of Prince Adelchis of Benevento.
  • George becomes Byzantine strategos at Bari.

893 AD

  • Pope Formosus requests that Arnulf, king of eastern Francia, “liberate” Italy from the rule of the western co-emperors Guy and Lambert, promising him the imperial crown. Arnulf sends an army under his son Zwentibold, who joins Guy’s rival, King Berengar I of Italy. The allied army defeats Guy in battle — but he bribes them to withdraw.

894 AD

  • Arnulf personally leads a new expedition into northern Italy, occupying all the territory north of the Po.
  • In late autumn, Guy III dies unexpectedly. Lambert II, under the tutelage of his mother Ageltrude, becomes sole western Emperor — his claims contested by Arnulf and by Berengar of Friuli, who also claims the crown of Italy.
    • Lambert and Ageltrude travel to Rome hoping Pope Formosus will confirm his claims. Formosus, a supporter of Arnulf, temporarily throws Lambert into prison.
  • Theodore becomes Byzantine strategos at Bari. He is soon replaced by Barascius.
  • Earthquake strikes much of Apulia and Samnium.

895 AD

  • (Jan) Lambert II and Ageltrude occupy Rome.
  • (Sept) Pope Formosus sends a new request for help to Arnulf against the nobles still supporting Lambert II. Arnulf launches a new expedition into northern Italy.
  • Guy, duke of Spoleto, becomes prince of Benevento.
  • Duke Athanasius II of Naples provokes an unsuccessful revolt of the Neapolitans living in Salerno. The insurrection is put down by Prince Guaimar.

896 AD

  • (Feb 21) Arnulf captures Rome and frees Pope Formosus, who deposes Lambert II and crowns Arnulf King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor.
  • Arnulf marches against Lambert II and Ageltrude at Spoleto — but before reaching the city he suffers a stroke and is forced to withdraw to Germany.
  • (Apr 4) Pope Formosus dies and is succeeded by Boniface VI. After a reign of only 15 days, Boniface dies and is succeeded in May by Stephen VI (VII).
  • With Arnulf’s withdrawal and Formosus’s death, Lambert II is restored to power in Italy.

897 AD

  • (July or Aug) Pope Stephen VI (VII) is deposed and assassinated. He is succeeded, in August, by Romanus. In November, Romanus is deposed and replaced by Theodore II — who dies in December after a reign of only 20 days.
  • Peter, Bishop of Benevento, becomes regent of that principality for a short time. Radelchis II, deposed in 884, is restored as prince of Benevento.

898 AD

  • (Jan) John IX becomes Pope.
  • Athanasius II of Naples dies. He is succeeded as duke by his nephew Gregory IV and as bishop by his brother Stephen.
  • Saracens sack the Badia di Farfa in Lazio.

899 AD

  • Abu Malik Ahmad ibn ‘Umar ibn ‘Abdallah ibn Ibrahim I ibn al-Aghlab, governor in Sicily in 873–876, is reinstated for a short time. He is soon replaced by Abu’L-Abbas ‘Abdallah ibn Ibrahim II.
  • (Nov/Dec) Leone becomes abbot of Teano (Monte Cassino).
  • (Dec 9) Arnulf, king of eastern Francia, dies.

900 AD

  • Pope John IX dies. He is succeeded in February by Benedict IV.
  • Louis the Blind becomes King of Italy.
  • (Jan) Atenulf I, count of Capua, conquers the principality of Benevento. The two principalities remain united until 981.
  • Guaimar II becomes prince of Salerno.
  • Docibilis I of Gaeta attacks Capua with the help of Saracen mercenaries.
  • Melisianus becomes Byzantine strategos at Bari.
  • Eruption of Vesuvius.

Key Themes of the 9th Century

  1. The Saracen Conquest of Sicily
    • From the landing at Mazara (827) through Palermo (831), Messina (842), Enna (859), Syracuse (878), and Taormina (879), the Aghlabids reduced Byzantine Sicily to a handful of holdouts.
    • The conquest began with a Byzantine traitor — the rebel Euphemius — who invited the invaders in.
  2. Saracens on the Mainland
    • A Berber emirate held Bari from 847 to 871. Raiders sacked the basilicas of St. Peter and St. Paul outside Rome (846), destroyed old Capua (841) and Monte Cassino (883), and razed Paestum (887).
    • The Battle of Ostia (849) and the new Leonine walls around the Vatican (848) were the papacy’s answer.
  3. Christians Hiring Saracens
    • Duke Andrew II of Naples became the first Italian prince to hire Saracen mercenaries (836). Naples, Benevento, and Gaeta all followed the practice against fellow Christians, drawing repeated papal excommunications.
  4. The Carolingian Collapse
    • Charlemagne’s death (814) began a century of division: the Treaty of Verdun (843), Louis II’s lonely campaigns in the south, and after 875 a revolving door of emperors and kings of Italy ending in open civil war between Guy of Spoleto, Lambert, Berengar, and Arnulf.
  5. The Fragmenting South
    • Benevento and Salerno split into rival principalities (840–849); Capua rose under its own counts; the Sergi dynasty took Naples (840); Amalfi and Gaeta emerged as independent maritime powers.
  6. The Byzantine Recovery
    • Even as Sicily was lost, Byzantium retook Bari (876), created the thema of Langobardia (874), and installed a Catapan of Apulia (885) — rebuilding imperial rule over the southern mainland that would last into the 11th century.

By 900 AD, Sicily was an emirate, the Carolingian order was dead, and southern Italy had settled into the crowded chessboard — Lombard princes, Byzantine governors, maritime dukes, and Saracen raiders — that would define the next two centuries. The 10th century opens with Capua and Benevento united under Atenulf I and with new invaders, the Magyars, already probing Italy from the north.