Rome in the 1st Century BC – Enter Julius and Augustus Caesar and the Roman Empire
The 1st century BC was a pivotal age of profound upheaval and transformation in the Roman world. Political storms raged as multiple civil wars gripped the Republic, from the end of the Second Servile War in Sicily to the legendary rivalry between Julius Caesar and Pompey, culminating in the ascendancy of Augustus. Rome’s territorial expansion and internal power struggles reshaped not only the Italian peninsula—with colonies in Campania and Sicily—but also the wider Mediterranean. Culturally, the likes of Cicero, Sallust, and Virgil left their mark, and technological feats—like central heating for oyster farming—underscored the era’s innovation. By century’s end, the Republic had given way to the Principate, and Rome stood poised to become the nucleus of a vast empire.
100 BC
- 170th Olympiad.
- The Second Servile War ends (alt. dates vary: 99, 100, or 103 BC).
- Consul Manlius Aquillius finally quells the slave rebellion in Sicily, but only receives an ovatio since the enemy were rebel slaves.
96 BC
- 171st Olympiad.
95 BC
- Roman entrepreneur C. Sergius Orata expands the oyster-growing industry in Campania:
- Establishes cultured beds at Lake Lucrinus near Baiae and Neapolis.
- Develops a hypocaust central heating system to warm oyster tanks—fueled by charcoal or wood, channeling hot air beneath floors.
- This system, though expensive and limited to ground floors, represents an early leap in heating technology.
94 BC
- A spectacular meteor is reported over the Vestini territory in central Italy.
93 BC
- Aulus Licinius Archias, a Greek poet from Antioch, becomes a citizen of Heraclea in Lucania.
92 BC
- 172nd Olympiad.
- Eruptions on Ischia.
91 BC: The Social War Erupts
- Tribune M. Livius Drusus tries extending full Roman citizenship to all Italian allies (socii).
- Conservative backlash leads to Drusus’s assassination.
- Italians in Asculum revolt, massacring local Romans.
- Other allied Italian towns—Stabiae, Surrentum, Herculaneum, Pompeii—join the insurrection, forming an Italian republic at Corfinium (Italica).
- Eruption on Ischia and on Vulcano; possible earthquake at Rhegium.
90 BC
- Consul L. Julius Caesar issues the lex Julia, granting full Roman citizenship to Italian allies who did not rebel. This prevents further defections.
- Neapolis becomes a municipium.
- Aesernia (Isernia) surrenders to rebel Samnites under Vettius Cato.
- Romans defeat Italians under Papius near Acerrae.
- Asculum is besieged by Gn. Pompeius Strabo.
- (c.) Birth of Diodorus Siculus, the Sicilian historian (d. 30 BC).
- Elea (Velia) is raised to municipium status.
89 BC
- Roman commander Sulla besieges and captures Pompeii.
- Battle of Fucine Lake: Romans under consul L. Porcius Cato fail against rebel Marsi; Cato is killed.
- Herculaneum is captured by Titus Didius and becomes a municipium.
- The “Nuceria League” (Nuceria, Surrentum, Pompeii, Herculaneum) is dissolved; those towns form separate alliances with Rome; Stabiae’s territory goes to Nuceria.
- Alba Fucens stays loyal to Rome and repels an Italian siege.
- Battle of Nola: Romans defeat an Italian army.
- Asculum falls to Gn. Pompeius Strabo.
- Rebels transfer their capital from Corfinium (Italica) to Bovianum Vetus.
- Lex Plautia Papiria broadens citizenship rights to more Italians (including A. Licinius Archias).
- Venusia becomes a municipium.
88 BC
- 173rd Olympiad.
- Romans under Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius defeat Italians under Q. Pompaedius Silo. Silo is soon killed.
- Canusium (Canosa) gets municipium status.
- L. Cornelius Sulla marches his army on Rome—an unprecedented act.
87 BC
- End of the Social War.
- Italians destroy pro-Roman Abella, later rebuilt as a colony.
- Marius and Cinna seize Rome, unleashing mass executions (to 86 BC).
86 BC
- (c.) Birth of the historian Sallust at Amiternum.
- (Jan 13) Marius dies.
84 BC
- 174th Olympiad.
- Aesernia retaken by Rome; the population severely punished.
83 BC
- Sulla lands at Brundisium (Brindisi), starting a bloody civil war vs. Marian forces.
- Pompey (Gn. Pompeius Magnus) and Crassus back Sulla.
- A brief colony is founded near Capua.
82 BC
- Marian supporter Gn. Papirius Carbo flees to Sicily, is captured by Pompey and executed at Lilybaeum.
- Sulla’s troops take Neapolis via treachery, killing many inhabitants; the city recovers by a generation later.
- Battle of the Colline Gate: Sulla defeats Marians & Samnite allies.
- Sulla declares himself dictator, punishing Samnites and other Italic peoples; many are forcibly integrated into Rome.
80 BC
- 175th Olympiad.
- Nola surrenders to Sulla and is razed (alt. date: 79).
- Pompeii also falls. A Roman colony (Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum) is founded—2,000–5,000 veterans settle there (some sources date this to 87 BC).
76 BC
- 176th Olympiad.
75 BC
- Cicero finds and restores Archimedes’ tomb at Syracuse.
73 BC: Third Servile War
- Former auxiliary Thracian soldier Spartacus, enslaved as a gladiator at Capua, escapes and rallies slaves to Mt. Vesuvius.
- Many slaves and disaffected Italians join him.
- Nola is pillaged by Spartacus.
- Verres becomes praetor in Sicily, looting the island’s cities and brutally suppressing slaves to prevent rebellion.
72 BC
- 177th Olympiad.
71 BC
- End of the Third Servile War: Spartacus is defeated by Marcus Licinius Crassus; Pompey conducts mop-up.
- Spartacus either dies in battle or is crucified with 6,000 rebels along the Appian Way.
70 BC
- Sicily produces 500 million lb. of wheat yearly; under Augustus, ~80 million lb. shipped to Rome.
- Cicero prosecutes Verres for corruption. Verres is exiled, though stolen Sicilian treasures are not restored.
- Amphitheater construction begins at Pompeii.
68 BC
- 178th Olympiad.
65 BC
- (Dec 8) Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horace) is born in Sulmona or Venusia.
64 BC
- 179th Olympiad.
63 BC
- Tribune Servilius Rullus plans a colony near Capua; Cicero opposes it (De Lege Agraria) and it fails.
- (Sept 9) Gaius Octavius Thurinus (the future Augustus) is born in Rome.
62 BC
- (Jan 5) Catiline’s conspiracy collapses; Catiline is killed in Etruria, five conspirators executed in Rome.
- Cicero and Cato hailed as saviors of the Republic.
61 BC
- Possible Mt. Etna eruption.
60 BC
- 180th Olympiad.
59 BC
- Julius Caesar settles veterans in Campania, founding colonies at Casilinum and Calatia near Capua; collectively known as Julia Felix (~20,000 settlers).
56 BC
- Possible Mt. Etna eruption.
- (Apr) Earthquake at Potentia (Potenza).
- 181st Olympiad: Lamachus of Tauromenium wins the stadion race.
52 BC
- 182nd Olympiad.
50 BC
- Eruption on Stromboli.
49 BC: Caesar’s Civil War Begins
- (Jan 10) Caesar crosses the Rubicon—an act of treason in Roman eyes.
- (Feb) Pompey and much of the Senate flee to Epirus.
- (Mar 28) Caesar visits Cicero at Formiae.
- (June 7) Cicero departs Italy for Thessalonika.
- (Oct) Caesar is declared dictator for life.
- Caesar pardons Social War exiles, allowing Pompeii’s old families to regain prominence.
- Caesar besieges Brundisium; Mt. Etna erupts.
48 BC
- 183rd Olympiad.
- (Aug 9) Battle of Pharsalus: Caesar (22,000 men) defeats Pompey (60,000 men).
- (Sept 29) Pompey the Great is assassinated in Egypt on his 56th birthday.
47 BC
- Caesar assembles a fleet at Lilybaeum (Marsala) for his African campaign.
46 BC
- (Feb 5) Marcus Porcius Cato (Cato the Younger) commits suicide at Utica.
45 BC
- (Mar 17) Battle of Munda in Spain: Caesar defeats last Optimate forces.
- Labienus is killed; Gnaeus Pompeius executed. Sextus Pompey flees to Sicily.
44 BC
- 184th Olympiad.
- Possible Mt. Etna eruption.
- Caesar grants Latinitas (Latin Rights) to all Sicilians; Marc Antony upgrades that to full citizenship soon after Caesar’s death.
- (Mar 15) Assassination of Julius Caesar. Civil war erupts between his assassins and the Second Triumvirate (Marc Antony, Octavian, Lepidus).
- (Apr 18–19) Octavian meets Cicero and others at Naples, Cumae; Cicero deems him “noble and friendly.”
- (May 8) Octavian assumes name Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus.
- Marc Antony renews the colony at Casilinum in Campania.
- Caesar’s Campanian veterans reorganize as Legions VII Paterna & VIII Gallica under Octavian.
- (Nov 27) Official formation of the Second Triumvirate.
- Cicero is later marked for death by Antony.
43 BC
- Sextus Pompey seizes Sicily amidst political turmoil.
- Henna (Sicily) becomes a municipium.
- (Dec 7) Cicero is killed near Formiae by Antony’s agents, ending the orator’s career.
41 BC
- Farmland in Campania is confiscated for distribution to legionary veterans.
40 BC
- 185th Olympiad.
- Treaty of Brundisium: Octavian, Antony, Lepidus divide the empire. Lepidus gets Africa; Antony the East; Octavian the West.
39 BC
- Pact of Misenum: The Triumvirs meet Sextus Pompey at Misenum (Campania), giving him Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, and the Peloponnese to avert a grain blockade.
38 BC
- Treaty of Tarentum: Extends the Triumvirate another 5 years.
- Triumvirs declare war on Sextus Pompey.
- Octavian marries Livia Drusilla.
- Sextus Pompey defeats Octavian off Messana.
37 BC
- Agrippa trains Octavian’s new fleet near Naples; Pompey again bests Octavian at sea near Messana.
36 BC
- 186th Olympiad.
- (July 15) Mt. Etna erupts.
- (Aug) Sextus Pompey defeats Octavian in a naval engagement;
- (Sept) Agrippa crushes Pompey off Naulochus. Pompey flees, Lepidus is sidelined, and Octavian secures Sicily.
35 BC
- Sextus Pompey is captured at Miletus and executed on Antony’s orders, which Octavian later condemns as unlawful.
34 BC
- Sallust, historian from Samnium, dies.
32 BC
- 187th Olympiad.
- Second Treaty of Tarentum (renewing Brundisium Accords).
- Possible Mt. Etna eruption.
31 BC
- (Sept 2) Battle of Actium: Octavian’s forces (led by Agrippa) defeat Antony and Cleopatra. They flee to Egypt.
- Misenum becomes a major military port.
30 BC
- Morgantina in Sicily is abandoned for reasons unclear; it had been a prosperous city.
- Antony and Cleopatra die by suicide; Diodorus Siculus also dies this year.
28 BC
- 188th Olympiad.
- A Roman census is taken.
27 BC: The Roman Empire Begins
- (Jan 16) The Senate grants Octavian the title Augustus, marking the end of the Republic and the birth of the Principate.
- Marcus Terentius Varro dies; Agrippa completes a tunnel through the Posilipo headland near Naples (2,244 ft, 21 ft wide, up to 70 ft tall in places).
24 BC
- 189th Olympiad.
- Eruption on Vulcano Island.
22 BC
- Mausoleum of Lucius Munatius Plancus built at Caita (Gaeta).
- Converted in the 19th century into a shrine for the Virgin Mary.
21 BC
- Augustus visits Sicily.
20 BC
- 190th Olympiad.
19 BC
- (Sept 21) Virgil dies of illness at Brundisium; is buried near Naples.
- (c.) Marcus Velleius Paterculus is born, a Campanian noble who becomes a Roman historian and later meets his end under Tiberius.
17 BC
- Horace composes the Carmen Saeculare for Augustus.
16 BC
- 191st Olympiad.
12 BC
- 192nd Olympiad.
- Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa dies.
10 BC
- Eruption on Vulcano and possibly Mt. Etna.
9 BC
- The island of Capri is made Imperial property by Augustus.
- Augustus establishes the world’s first paleontological museum in his villa on Capri, displaying “giants’ bones” and ancient weapons.
8 BC
- 193rd Olympiad.
- Death of Horace.
- Month of Sextilis is renamed August.
- A new Roman census is held.
7 BC
- (c.) Augustus reorganizes Italy into 11 regions. Southern Italy forms:
- Regio I: Latium et Campania
- Regio II: Apulia et Calabria
- Regio III: Lucania et Bruttii
- Regio IV: Samnium
6 BC
- Eruption on Ischia.
4 BC
- 194th Olympiad.
2 BC
- Earthquake at Neapolis (Naples).
- Julia, daughter of Augustus, is exiled to Pandateria for adultery.
Key Takeaways
- Transition from Republic to Empire
- From Sulla’s dictatorship to the rise of Augustus, the 1st century BC witnessed the Republic’s collapse under civil wars and the birth of the Principate.
- Social & Slave Conflicts
- Early in the century, the Social War redefined Roman citizenship, fully integrating Italy.
- Third Servile War (73–71 BC) under Spartacus underscored massive unrest within Italy’s slave population.
- Prominent Figures
- Cicero, Pompey, Crassus, Caesar, Antony, Augustus—their rivalries and alliances shaped the century’s power struggles.
- Literary greats like Sallust, Virgil, Horace flourished amid the political tumult.
- Infrastructure & Innovations
- C. Sergius Orata pioneered oyster farming and hypocaust heating in Campania.
- Agrippa carried out major engineering feats—tunnels, ports, and naval bases—that supported Octavian’s campaigns.
- Cultural and Administrative Changes
- Expansion of Roman citizenship—through the lex Julia and lex Plautia Papiria—transformed Italy’s civic landscape.
- Augustus’s new administrative regions and the renaming of Sextilis to August signal the dawn of imperial governance.
By 2 BC, Augustus was consolidating Rome’s territories and social structures under imperial authority. The conflicts and alliances of the previous decades had permanently altered Rome’s institutions, paving the way for centuries of Empire.