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10th Century AD – The Ottonians and the Emirs

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The 10th century AD redrew the balance of power in Italy yet again. On the mainland, the Battle of the Garigliano (915) saw a grand Christian league — papacy, Byzantines, and the squabbling southern states together for once — destroy the Saracen strongholds of central Italy. But in Sicily the conquest completed itself: Rametta, the last Byzantine holdout, fell in 965, and the island passed to the Kalbid emirs, who promptly turned their raids back on Calabria and Apulia. Rome sank into the era of Marozia and Alberic II, when popes were made and unmade by a single family. Then came the Germans: Otto I was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 962, and his son Otto II marched south to challenge Byzantines and Saracens alike — only to be nearly killed at the disastrous Battle of Basientello (982). By century’s end, Byzantium had answered with a new office, the Catapan of Apulia, and southern Italy stood divided between Greek governors, Lombard princes, maritime dukes, and Sicilian emirs.

Full Chronological Summary (10th Century AD)

New Dioceses (10th Century)

  • Termoli
  • Trivento

Note: The dioceses of Brindisi, Naples, Salerno, and Taranto are each raised to the status of a Metropolitan Archdiocese during this century.

901 AD

  • Louis the Blind becomes western emperor.
  • Landulf III becomes co-count of Capua and co-prince in Benevento (as Landulf I) under Atenulf I.

902 AD

  • (Aug 1) Aghlabid emir Abu’L-Abbas ‘Abdallah ibn Ibrahim II attacks and destroys Taormina.
  • Docibilis I of Gaeta makes another attack on Capua with the help of Saracen mercenaries.
  • Abu Mudar Ziyadat Allah ibn ‘Abdallah II becomes the Saracen Aghlabid governor in Sicily.

903 AD

  • Pope Benedict IV dies. He is succeeded by Leo V — who is deposed after a reign of only 30 days by the antipope Christopher. In October, Leo is imprisoned and assassinated.

904 AD

  • (Jan 29) The antipope Christopher is deposed and Sergius III becomes pope.
  • Saracens sack Nola.

905 AD

  • Emperor Louis the Blind invades Italy but is defeated by Berengar. He is captured and has his eyes burned out, then is forced to abdicate. Berengar I succeeds him as King of Italy and western emperor.

906 AD

  • John I and Docibilis II, son and grandson of Docibilis I, become co-hypati of Gaeta. This is the last historical mention of Docibilis I; it is uncertain whether he died at this time or retired.

908 AD

  • (May 15) Constantine VII, son of Leo VI and nephew of Alexander, is associated on the Byzantine throne with his father and uncle.

909 AD

  • The Saracen Aghlabid dynasty in North Africa is overthrown by the Fatimids.

910 AD

  • Landulf III unites the principalities of Capua and Benevento under his rule, assuming the title of Prince.
  • Sicily comes under the rule of the Saracen Fatimid dynasty.

911 AD

  • (Apr 14) Pope Sergius III dies. He is succeeded in April by Anastasius III.
  • Atenulf II becomes co-prince of Capua and Benevento.

912 AD

  • (May 11) Byzantine Emperor Leo VI dies. He is succeeded by his younger brother Alexander.
  • Saracens sack the Abbazia di Novalesa in Piedmont.

913 AD

  • (June) Pope Anastasius III dies. He is succeeded in July or August by Lando.
  • (June 6) Byzantine Emperor Alexander dies of exhaustion. His young nephew Constantine VII becomes sole emperor with Patriarch Nicholas Mystikos as regent.
  • Saracens launch new attacks in Calabria.

914 AD

  • (Feb or Mar) Pope Lando dies. He is succeeded by John X.
  • Empress Zoe replaces Patriarch Nicholas Mystikos as regent for Byzantine emperor Constantine VII.
  • Docibilis II becomes duke of Gaeta.
  • (Sept) Giovanni I becomes abbot of Capua (Monte Cassino).
  • Saracens establish bases at Trevi in Umbria and Sutri near Rome.

915 AD

  • John II becomes duke of Naples.
  • Nicholas (called Piccingli) becomes Byzantine strategos at Bari.
  • (summer) Battle of the Garigliano. A Christian League — Papacy, Salerno, Gaeta, Naples, Benevento, Capua, Spoleto, the Marche, and the Byzantines — launches a major campaign to clear central Italy of Saracen raiders.
    • A series of early Christian victories forces the Saracens centered at Narni and Ciculi to fall back and mass their forces at their principal stronghold on the river Garigliano. The Christians lay siege to the citadel in June.
    • After a short siege the Saracens abandon their main positions and concentrate in the nearby hills, beating back repeated Christian attacks. Finally, as supplies dwindle, they launch a counter-attack with all their forces in an attempt to reach the sea and escape by ship to Sicily.
    • In the ensuing battle, the Saracens are completely destroyed. Those taken prisoner are all executed.
    • As a reward for his services in the battle, John I, hypatus of Gaeta, receives the title of Patrician (patricius) from the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII.
  • Saracens are driven from their base at Agropoli, which they had held since 882.
  • Capaccio (SA) is founded by former residents of the now-destroyed Paestum.
  • Earliest evidence for a casale (household) at Adria [BA].

916 AD

  • Saracens raid in the Savoy region.

919 AD

  • Admiral Romanus Lekapenos replaces Empress Zoe as regent for Byzantine emperor Constantine VII. He quickly marries his daughter Helena to Constantine, becoming basileopatōr in May, Caesar in September, and finally co-emperor (as Romanos I) in December.
  • Marinus I becomes duke of Naples.

921 AD

  • Orseolo becomes Byzantine strategos at Bari.

922 AD

  • Saracens sack Taranto.

924 AD

  • Saracens capture Sant’Agata in Calabria.

925 AD

  • Saracen raids continue throughout Calabria and in Apulia. The towns of the Terra d’Otranto suffer several attacks.
  • (July 4) Oria is attacked by a Saracen force led by Ja’far ibn ‘Ubaid, who massacres the town’s Christian and Jewish population.

927 AD

  • (Aug 15) Saracens attack and destroy Taranto.

928 AD

  • Rome is seized by Marozia, senatrix patricia Romanorum, and her husband Guy, margrave of Tuscany. Pope John X is captured and executed. He is succeeded in May by Leo VI — who dies in December after a reign of only about seven months.
  • John III becomes duke of Naples.

929 AD

  • Saracen raids continue along the coasts of Calabria.
  • Stephen VII (VIII), a puppet of Marozia, becomes pope.

930 AD

  • Saracens sack Paestum.

931 AD

  • Pope Stephen VII (VIII) dies. He is succeeded in March by John XI, the son of Marozia and Alberic of Spoleto.
    • Some sources — notably Liutprand of Cremona and the Liber Pontificalis — say that John XI was actually the illegitimate son of Pope Sergius III. His appointment was arranged by his mother, who had complete control over him.

932 AD

  • Alberic II, son of Marozia, deposes his mother and his stepfather Hugh, King of Italy, from their rulership of Rome.
    • Seizing the city for himself, he captures Marozia and imprisons her for the remainder of her life. Hugh escapes back to the north.
    • Alberic also forces Pope John XI, his older brother, to acknowledge him as ruler.

933 AD

  • Atenulf III Carinola becomes co-prince of Capua and Benevento.
  • Docibilis II and John II become co-dukes and consuls of Gaeta.
  • Pope John XI grants the bishops of Bari the right to wear the pallium.

934 AD

  • (Apr 6) Adelperto becomes abbot of Capua (Monte Cassino).
  • Saracens raid the coast of Liguria.

935 AD

  • Epiphanuso becomes Byzantine strategos at Bari.
  • Pope John XI is deposed.
  • Saracens sack Genoa.

936 AD

  • (Jan 3) Leo VII becomes pope. His election was arranged by Alberic II, ruler of Rome.
  • Saracens attempt to attack the town of Acqui in Piedmont but are repulsed by the defenders led by Count Aleramo.

939 AD

  • (July 13) Pope Leo VII dies. He is succeeded, on July 14, by Stephen VIII (IX), another puppet of Alberic II.

940 AD

  • Landulf IV “the Red” becomes co-prince of Capua and Benevento (as Landulf II) (alt. date 939).
  • Imogalaptus becomes Byzantine strategos at Bari.
  • Famine in Italy.
  • (c) Johannes Gorziensis, a monk from the region of Metz, visits southern Italy and acquires a number of manuscripts to bring back with him. Through his efforts several classical works — including Aristotle’s Categories and Porphyry’s Isagogia — are introduced to Germany.
  • Saracens raid through the St. Bernard pass in the Alps.

942 AD

  • (Oct) Pope Stephen VIII (IX) dies. He is succeeded, on October 30, by Marinus II, whose election was arranged by Alberic II.

943 AD

  • Pandulf I “Ironhead” becomes co-prince of Capua and Benevento.
  • Baldovino and Maielpoto both become abbots of Capua (Monte Cassino).

944 AD

  • (Dec 16) Byzantine Emperor Romanos I is deposed by his sons, leaving Constantine VII as sole emperor. Romanos’s life is spared but he is forced to become a monk.

945 AD

  • (Apr 6) Constantine VII raises his son Romanos II to be co-emperor.

946 AD

  • Pope Marinus II is deposed and replaced, on May 10, by Agapetus II.
  • Gisulf I becomes prince of Salerno.

948 AD

  • (Oct 25) The Benedictine monastery at Monte Cassino is restored, with Aligerno as abbot.
  • (Dec 16) Romanus I Lecapenus, former Byzantine Emperor, dies.
  • Hassan al-Kalbi is appointed emir of Sicily by the Fatimid Caliph Ismail al-Mansur (to 964). He founds the Saracen Kalbid dynasty of emirs, which will rule Sicily until 1053.

949 AD

  • An epidemic, described by sources as a “great disease,” strikes Salerno and Benevento.

950 AD

  • (c) Ibn Haukal, Saracen traveler and writer, visits Palermo.
  • The Saracens under the Emir of Palermo attack Reggio and Gerace in southern Calabria and lay siege to Cassano allo Jonio in northern Calabria.

951 AD

  • Earthquake damages Rossano in Calabria.

952 AD

  • Saracens establish colonies in Calabria as forward bases for future raids.
  • Giovanni II, bishop of Bari, refuses to obey the prescriptions of the Patriarch of Constantinople regarding liturgical points. Although the see of Bari remains a dependency of Constantinople, this breach will continue to grow until, in the 11th century, Bari transfers its loyalties to the Popes in Rome.

953 AD

  • Mastalus I, Patrician (patricius) of Amalfi, dies and is succeeded by his son Mastalus II.

954 AD

  • Docibilis II dies, leaving John II as sole hypatus/duke of Gaeta.

955 AD

  • (Nov 8) Pope Agapetus II dies. He is succeeded, on December 16, by John XII.
  • Marianus becomes Byzantine strategos at Bari.

957 AD

  • Mastalus II, the Patrician of Amalfi, becomes duke.

958 AD

  • Sergius I, a member of the Musco Comite, assassinates Mastalus II and assumes the title of duke of Amalfi.
  • Petrus, bishop of Otranto, is promoted to Metropolitan by Polyeutus, Patriarch of Constantinople.

959 AD

  • (Nov 9) Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII dies. Romanos II is sole Byzantine emperor.
  • Landulf V becomes co-prince of Capua and Benevento (as Landulf III).

960 AD

  • Saracens attempt to raid into the Val d’Aosta but are repulsed.

962 AD

  • (Feb 2) Pope John XII crowns Otto I as Holy Roman Emperor.
  • Gregory becomes duke of Gaeta.

963 AD

  • Emperor Otto I discovers a conspiracy against him by Berengar II of Italy and Pope John XII. He quickly defeats and imprisons Berengar, then marches on Rome. John XII flees the city and takes refuge in Campania. Otto deposes John XII and, on December 6, has Leo VIII elected as the new pope.
  • Following the defeat of a Byzantine expedition in Sicily, a treaty is concluded with the Saracens.

964 AD

  • Upon the departure of Emperor Otto I, the deposed pope John XII returns to Rome with his own army. Leo VIII flees and is deposed by a synod called by John XII. Otto prepares to restore him and marches back to Rome — but before he reaches the city, John XII dies on May 14.
  • (May 22) Benedict V is elected as Pope, but Emperor Otto I refuses to approve the election. Benedict is deposed on June 23 and sent to Hamburg, where he dies in 966.
  • (July) Pope Leo VIII is restored to the papal throne.

965 AD

  • (Mar) Pope Leo VIII dies. He is succeeded, on March 1, by John XIII. In December, John is kidnapped by a conspiracy of nobles and imprisoned.
  • Alife becomes an independent county.
  • Rametta, the last Byzantine stronghold in Sicily, falls to the Saracens — completing their conquest of the island. The Saracens immediately launch a new invasion of Calabria.

966 AD

  • Manso I becomes duke of Amalfi.
  • Nicephorus becomes Byzantine strategos at Bari.
  • Pope John XIII escapes from prison and takes refuge at Capua under the protection of Prince Pandulf I. In gratitude, John raises (Aug 14) the see of Capua to the status of an archdiocese. The first archbishop is John, who holds the seat until 973.

967 AD

  • Pandulf I “Ironhead” becomes duke of Spoleto.

968 AD

  • (Dec 1) Eruption of Vesuvius.
  • Landulf VI becomes co-prince of Capua and Benevento (as Landulf IV). Landulf III, prince of Benevento, dies and is succeeded by Landulf IV.
  • John III, duke of Naples, dies. He is succeeded by his elder son Marinus II.
  • Tricarico is captured by the Byzantines. A cathedral is erected there by order of Polyeutos, the Patriarch of Constantinople.

969 AD

  • Eugenius becomes Byzantine strategos at Bari. He is soon replaced by Abdila.
  • (May 26) Benevento is promoted to the status of a Metropolitan Archdiocese.
  • Earliest historical mention of a diocese of Ausculum Appulum (mod. Ascoli), listed as a suffragan to Benevento.
  • Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas dies. He is succeeded, on December 11, by John I.
  • Reinstatement of Alife as a diocese.

972 AD

  • (Sept 6) Pope John XIII dies.
  • The autonomous Kalbid Saracens take control of Sicily.

973 AD

  • (Jan 19) Benedict VI, a supporter of Emperor Otto I, becomes pope.
  • (May 7) Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor, dies. He is succeeded by his son Otto II.

974 AD

  • (July or Aug) Pope Benedict VI dies. He is succeeded in October by Benedict VII.

975 AD

  • Sergius III becomes duke of Naples.
  • Zachary becomes Byzantine strategos at Bari.

976 AD

  • (Jan 10) Byzantine Emperor John I dies. He is succeeded by Basil II.
  • Holy Roman Emperor Otto II and Pope Benedict VII are acknowledged as feudal suzerains of Gaeta.

977 AD

  • Heavy snowfalls are reported in Salerno and Calabria.
  • Saracens capture Reggio di Calabria, Taranto, Otranto, and Oria.

978 AD

  • Pandulf I “Ironhead” becomes prince of Salerno.
  • Marinus II becomes duke of Gaeta.
  • Saracens continue raiding in Calabria.

979 AD

  • John III becomes co-duke of Gaeta.
  • Porphyry becomes Byzantine strategos at Bari.
  • Andrea, bishop of Brindisi, is killed by the Saracens.

980 AD

  • Empress Theophano, the Byzantine-born wife of Otto II, convinces her husband to conquer the Greek provinces of Italy. The imperial couple march their army to Ravenna.

981 AD

  • (Mar) Pandulf I “Ironhead” dies. Landulf VI rules briefly as sole prince of Benevento, then withdraws back to Capua. Pandulf II becomes prince of Benevento.
  • Pandulf II becomes prince of Salerno but is soon replaced by Manso I, the duke of Amalfi, who makes his son John I co-prince.
  • More Saracen raiding in Calabria.

982 AD

  • The principalities of Capua and Benevento are split up again. Landenulf II becomes prince of Capua.
  • Byzantines form an alliance with the Saracens against the threat from Emperor Otto II.
  • Calochyrus (called Delfinus) becomes Byzantine strategos at Bari.
  • (July 13) Battle of Basientello. Otto II suffers a major defeat by an army of 40,000 Kalbid Saracens near Crotone. Among the fallen are Pandulf II of Salerno and Landulf IV of Benevento.
    • Otto is nearly captured but escapes by plunging his horse into the sea and swimming to a Greek ship offshore. Now among his Byzantine enemies, he keeps his identity secret.
    • A Slavonian sailor on board recognizes him but proves a friend: he keeps Otto’s identity secret and convinces the crew to sail to Rossano, where they might ransom the newcomer. Once ashore, the Slavonian gathers a group which rescues Otto.
  • Jabir al-Kalbi succeeds Abu al-Qasim as Kalbid emir of Sicily.

983 AD

  • (Dec 7) Holy Roman Emperor Otto II dies in Rome. His wife Theophano has their 3-year-old son Otto III crowned as emperor on Christmas. Theophano, as Empress-regent, holds the reins of government.
  • (Dec) Pope Benedict VII dies. He is succeeded by John XIV.
  • John II becomes prince of Salerno.
  • Jafar al-Kalbi succeeds Jabir al-Kalbi as Kalbid emir of Sicily.

984 AD

  • (Aug 20) Pope John XIV is assassinated by the antipope Boniface VII.
  • Adelfer, brother of Manso I, usurps the duchy of Amalfi during Manso’s absence in Salerno.
  • Marinus III dies, leaving John III as sole duke of Gaeta.

985 AD

  • (July 20) The antipope Boniface VII is assassinated.
  • (Aug) John XV becomes pope.
  • Romano and his son (name unknown) become co-Byzantine strategoi at Bari.
  • Abd-Allah al-Kalbi succeeds Jafar al-Kalbi as Kalbid emir of Sicily.

986 AD

  • Manso I returns to Amalfi and resumes his rule. His brother, the usurper Adelfer, flees to Naples with his wife Drosu.
  • (Nov 14) Mansone becomes abbot of Monte Cassino.
  • Saracens sack Gerace.

987 AD

  • Landulf V becomes co-prince of Benevento.
  • Sergius becomes Byzantine strategos at Bari.
  • The diocese of Amalfi is raised to the status of an Archdiocese by Pope John XV.
  • Saracens sack Cassano allo Jonio.

988 AD

  • Saracens seize Cosenza and the Terra di Bari.

989 AD

  • John I (called Ammirapolo) becomes Byzantine strategos at Bari.
  • (Oct 25) Earthquake strikes the Irpinia region of Campania.
  • A revolt at Rome is put down by the Empress Theophano.

990 AD

  • Tubali becomes Byzantine strategos at Bari.
  • Yusuf al-Kalbi succeeds Abd-Allah al-Kalbi as Kalbid emir of Sicily (to 998).

991 AD

  • John IV becomes co-duke of Gaeta.
  • Eruption of Vesuvius.

992 AD

  • Major crop losses due to heavy rainfall cause an economic crisis at Naples.

993 AD

  • Laidulf becomes prince of Capua.
  • Plague in Capua.
  • Eruption of Mt. Vesuvius.

994 AD

  • Guaimar III becomes prince of Salerno.

995 AD

  • Severe drought grips Italy from May to December.

996 AD

  • (Mar/Apr) Pope John XV dies before he is able to crown Otto III as Holy Roman Emperor. Otto is forced to wait at Pavia until a new pope can be chosen.
    • On May 3, Gregory V becomes pope and crowns the 16-year-old Otto III as emperor on May 21. The 24-year-old Gregory V is the first German pope — and Otto III’s first cousin.
  • Giovanni II becomes abbot of Monte Cassino.
  • Disease kills many horses in Italy.

997 AD

  • The Roman noble Crescentius II, supported by the Byzantine emperor Basil II, leads a rebellion in Rome which overthrows Pope Gregory V. Crescentius places the antipope John XVI (born Johannes Philagathos in Rossano, Calabria) on the papal throne (alt. date 998).
  • (Oct) Giovanni III becomes abbot of Monte Cassino.
  • Theodore II becomes Byzantine strategos at Bari.

998 AD

  • (Feb) Emperor Otto III captures Rome and puts down the revolt. Its leader Crescentius is executed. The antipope John XVI is captured and mutilated. Gregory V is restored to the papal throne.
  • Ja’far al-Kalbi succeeds Yusuf al-Kalbi as Kalbid emir of Sicily.

999 AD

  • (Feb 18) Pope Gregory V dies suddenly under suspicious circumstances. He is succeeded, on April 2, by Silvester II.
  • Adhemar becomes prince of Capua. He is soon replaced by Landulf VII.
  • John IV becomes duke of Naples.
  • (or 998) The Byzantine strategos of Bari/Apulia is raised to the status of a Catapan — a title derived from the Greek for “the uppermost” or “the highest.” Protospatharius Gregory Tarchaneiotes (Tracanioto) becomes Catapan of Apulia.
  • (Dec) Byzantine Catapan Gregory Tarchaneiotes confirms the possessions of the monastery of Monte Cassino.
  • Eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, lasting into 1000.

1000 AD

  • Marsicovetere (PZ) becomes the seat of a county.
  • The cathedral of Acerenza [PZ] is built on the site of an earlier church.
  • (c) A Romanesque cathedral is built at Matera.

Key Themes of the 10th Century

  1. The Garigliano and the Mainland Cleared
    • The Battle of the Garigliano (915) — a rare united Christian effort — destroyed the Saracen strongholds of central Italy and cleared their base at Agropoli, held since 882.
  2. Sicily Fully Lost
    • The fall of Taormina (902) and finally Rametta (965) completed the Saracen conquest of Sicily. Under the Fatimids and then the Kalbid emirs (founded 948), the island became a base for constant raids on Calabria and Apulia — capturing Reggio, Taranto, Otranto, and Oria in 977 alone.
  3. Rome Under the Marozia Family
    • From the seizure of Rome in 928 through Alberic II’s death, popes were installed, deposed, and murdered at the pleasure of one family — including John XI, Marozia’s own son.
  4. The Ottonians Take Italy
    • Otto I’s imperial coronation (962) put the papacy under German protection and German control. Otto II’s southern ambitions ended in near-death at Basientello (982); Otto III installed the first German pope (996) and crushed the Crescentius revolt (998).
  5. The Byzantine Consolidation
    • A steady parade of strategoi at Bari culminated in the creation of the Catapan of Apulia (999) — the office that would govern Byzantine Italy through its final century.
  6. The Southern Merry-Go-Round
    • Capua and Benevento united (910), passed through a chain of Landulfs and Pandulfs including Pandulf I “Ironhead,” and split again (982); Amalfi, Gaeta, Naples, and Salerno cycled through their own dukes, princes, usurpers, and assassinations.

At the millennium, southern Italy was a crowded board with no dominant player: a Kalbid emirate in Sicily, a Byzantine Catapan in Bari, Lombard princes in Capua, Benevento, and Salerno, and independent dukes in Naples, Amalfi, and Gaeta. Within a generation, a handful of Norman pilgrims-turned-mercenaries would begin taking the board from all of them. That story opens the 11th century.