Roman History – Rome in the 4th Century BC
In the fourth century B.C., upheaval and transformation spread across the central Mediterranean. The Samnites pushed into southern Italy as Rome fortified its power with new colonies and alliances. In Sicily, tyrants like Dionysius I and Agathocles vied with Carthage, while Timoleon briefly restored democracy to Syracuse. Philosophers from Plato and Aristotle to Aristoxenus shaped the era’s intellectual life. By century’s end, Rome, Carthage, and Syracuse emerged as dominant powers, setting the stage for greater conflicts ahead.
I. Samnite (Sabellian) Expansion and Greek Resistance
1. The Samnites/Sabelli
- Throughout the early IV Century B.C., the Samnites (also called Sabelli) push outward from their homeland into much of southern Italy. They overrun many inland areas but face stubborn resistance in some Greek coastal cities—particularly those in the “heel” of the peninsula—and are blocked from entering Latium by Roman defenses.
- Herculaneum (on the Bay of Naples) falls under Samnite influence again, although this control fluctuates with Rome’s military responses.
2. Apulia
- Petty monarchies in Apulia give way to republican governance during the same period. The Daunian city Canusium rises in prominence, surpassing Arpi.
3. Notable Philosophers
- Aristoxenus of Tarentum, a Peripatetic philosopher and music theorist, flourishes. He insists musical scale notes be judged by the ear rather than purely by Pythagorean mathematical ratios.
- Hicetas of Syracuse, a Pythagorean astronomer, is said to propose ideas regarding the motions of celestial bodies and possibly the rotation of the Earth.
II. 400–390 B.C.
400 B.C. (XCV Olympiad)
- Dionysius I, tyrant of Syracuse, founds Adranon near Mount Etna (modern Adrano [CT]) by a temple dedicated to the Sikel fire-god Hadranos.
- Hadranos is often identified with the Phoenician deity Adramelech and is linked to Mount Etna’s volcanic fire.
399 B.C.
- Socrates dies in Athens, condemned for impiety and corrupting youth. Among those present is Philolaus, a Pythagorean from Magna Graecia.
- Dionysius I and Carthage begin a new phase of warfare for Sicily’s control; Dionysius besieges Segesta.
397–396 B.C.
- Dionysius I destroys Motya (Carthaginian stronghold in western Sicily); Carthage rebuilds at Lilybaeum.
- Greeks fortify or rebuild several sites (e.g., Tyndaris in Sicily).
- Carthaginians suffer from plague while besieging Syracuse and are forced to withdraw.
- Rome conquers the Etruscan city of Veii, marking a significant expansion of Roman territory north of the Tiber.
390 B.C.
- A massive group of Gauls under Brennus defeat the Roman army at the River Allia. They march south and sack Rome, though the Capitoline Hill resists. Romans later claim they forced the Gauls to withdraw, but the event leaves a deep scar on Rome’s psyche.
III. 389–380 B.C.
389–387 B.C.
- Dionysius I extends Syracusan power in Magna Graecia by defeating the Italiote League at the Battle of Elleporus. He also destroys Kaulon but allows survivors to rebuild later.
- Plato visits Syracuse at the invitation of Dionysius I but is forced to depart (c. 387). Upon returning to Athens, he founds the Academy, whose members will later influence events in Syracuse.
384 B.C.
- Aristotle is born in Stagira, Macedonia.
379 B.C.
- Dionysius I captures Croton; Gela regains independence from Syracuse for a brief period.
IV. 379–367 B.C.: The Last Years of Dionysius I
367 B.C.
- Dionysius I dies and is succeeded by his son Dionysius II.
- Dion, brother-in-law of Dionysius II, contacts Plato, inviting him to return to Syracuse to guide reforms.
- In Rome, the Leges Liciniae Sextiae allow Plebeians to stand for the consulship, marking a major step in Roman internal politics.
V. 366–347 B.C.: Plato’s Return and Turmoil in Syracuse
366–365 B.C.
- Plato arrives in Syracuse for a second time, hoping to support Dion’s political program. However, the tyranny remains unstable, and Dion is soon exiled.
361–360 B.C.
- Plato’s third visit to Syracuse sees him effectively held hostage by Dionysius II. He is only released after Archytas of Tarentum intervenes.
357–354 B.C.
- Dion returns with mercenaries, seizes Syracuse, and ousts Dionysius II. Dion is then assassinated by Callippus (354), another disciple of Plato’s Academy.
- Dionysius II briefly regains Syracuse but soon surrenders it to Corinthian assistance under Timoleon.
348–347 B.C.
- Plato dies (some sources say 347).
- Archytas of Tarentum also passes away (~347), notable for combining mathematics and statesmanship.
VI. 346–337 B.C.: Timoleon’s Democratic Reforms
344 B.C.
- Timoleon arrives from Corinth to restore order in Syracuse and end the chaos of frequent tyrannies.
- Defeats Hicetas (tyrant of Leontini) and an enormous Carthaginian force at the Battle of the Crimissus (~340).
338–337 B.C.
- Timoleon limits Carthage to western Sicily and reforms Syracuse’s government along democratic lines. He tears down the old tyranny’s citadel on Ortygia, establishing a court of justice in its place.
- Timoleon dies in 337, widely honored by the Syracusans for restoring their freedom.
VII. 336–323 B.C.: Alexander the Great and Roman Advances
336 B.C.
- Alexander III (“the Great”) becomes king of Macedonia after Philip II’s assassination.
335–323 B.C.
- Aristotle opens the Lyceum in Athens (335).
- Alexander conquers the Persian Empire and dies in 323 B.C. at age thirty-two. His death ushers in the Hellenistic era as his generals carve up his empire.
Roman Expansion
- Meanwhile, Rome continues consolidating power in Latium and Campania, planting colonies (e.g., Cales, Fregellae) and forging alliances in the broader region of Samnium and Apulia.
VIII. 321–304 B.C.: The Second Samnite War
321 B.C.: Battle of the Caudine Forks
- Samnites trap a Roman army of 20,000, compelling them to pass under the humiliating “yoke” (a symbolic arch of spears). Rome is forced to renounce certain territories and give hostages, but the Senate soon rejects the treaty, renewing the conflict.
310–308 B.C.
- As Rome wages prolonged campaigns in Samnite territory, Agathocles, the new tyrant of Syracuse, decides to attack Carthage directly by landing an army in North Africa (~310).
- Despite early successes, Agathocles cannot permanently subdue Carthage; a treaty eventually restores the prior Sicilian status quo.
305–304 B.C.
- The Second Samnite War draws to a close, with Rome firmly in control of northern and central Campania. Samnite independence remains but is weakened.
- Rome’s alliances expand, including treaties with the Marsi, Paeligni, Marrucini, and Frentani in central Italy.
IX. 303–301 B.C.: Greek City-States in Magna Graecia Seek Allies
- Taras/Tarentum repeatedly appeals for help (from Sparta and later Epirus) against the Lucanians and Bruttians.
- Rome founds more Latin colonies in strategic zones (e.g., Alba Fucens, Sora), ensuring firm control over the Liris River valley and readying expansions into Apulia.
- In Sicily, Agathocles remains the dominant figure in Syracuse, though various localities (Akragas, Gela, and Henna) sometimes shift allegiance or rebel.
X. Conclusion of the IV Century B.C.
By the end of the IV Century B.C. (around 300 B.C.), three major powers are clearly emerging in the central Mediterranean:
- Rome, triumphant in the Samnite Wars, steadily expanding across Italy.
- Carthage, maintaining its stronghold in western Sicily and North Africa.
- Syracuse, under Agathocles, retaining control of eastern Sicily while Greek coastal cities in southern Italy (Magna Graecia) increasingly depend on outside military aid to resist Italic tribes.
Philosophical thought—from Plato and Aristotle in Athens to Archytas and Aristoxenus in Tarentum—continues to shape the cultural landscape. Meanwhile, the Roman Republic’s organizational strength, road-building (e.g., Via Appia), and colony-planting lay the groundwork for its eventual dominance over the entire peninsula and beyond.