Roman History Timeline – The 5th Century BC
This text covers the 5th century BC in Italy and Sicily, spanning the expansion of Samnite/Sabellian power in Campania and beyond, the continued growth of Greek colonies (from Capri to Bari and across Sicily), and the political upheavals triggered by both local tyrants and external powers like Carthage. Major philosophical movements take shape—most notably the Eleatic school—while key historical figures (Pythagoras, Zeno, Empedocles) and states (Syracuse, Akragas, Carthage, Athens) contend for dominance. The century climaxes with momentous battles (Himera, Salamis, the Athenian siege of Syracuse) and shifting alliances that reshape the balance of power throughout the central Mediterranean.
I. Early 5th Century BC (c. 500 – 490 BC)
- (c.) Samnite/Sabellian Expansion
- Samnites/Sabelli conquer Pompeii and other Campanian towns, expanding into Apulia, Lucania, and Bruttium.
- Greeks colonize the island of Capri. Etymology of “Capri” debated (goats vs. boars).
- Eleatic school of philosophy founded by Parmenides.
- Petty monarchies emerge in Apulia, focused on strongly fortified cities.
- 500 BC
- 70th Olympiad.
- Greek colony established at Barium (Bari) in Apulia.
- Temple of Athena at Poseidonia (Paestum) built (6×13 columns, stylobate c. 14.54 m × 32.88 m).
- Oscan alphabet develops in southern Italy, adapting Etruscan and Greek letters to Indo-European Oscan phonology.
- Temple G at Selinus begun (c. 110.36 m × 50.1 m, likely dedicated to Apollo or Zeus).
- Carthaginians occupy Sardinia.
- Possible eruption on Ischia.
- 498 BC
- Cleander (tyrant of Gela) is assassinated by Sabyllos, succeeded by his brother Hippocrates.
- Hippocrates conquers Callipoli, Leontini, Naxos, Hergetios, Zankle—most of Greek Sicily except Syracuse.
- Roman census: 150,700 citizens.
- 497 BC
- Samians seize control of Zankle.
- Battle of Lake Regillus: Romans defeat the Latin League near Frascati.
- 496 BC
- 71st Olympiad.
- After Lake Regillus, Tarquinus Superbus flees to Kyme (Cumae), granted asylum by tyrant Aristodemus Malacus.
- Scythas, tyrant of Zankle, escapes Hippocrates’s prison, flees to Persia.
- Castrum Leonis (Castiglione di Sicilia) founded.
- 494 BC
- Anaxilas becomes ruler of Rhegium (Reggio di Calabria).
- Hippocrates of Gela captures Leontini (it later regains independence under tyrant Aenesidemus).
- 493 BC
- Roman census: 110,000 citizens.
II. Rise of Tyrannies and Conflicts (492 – 480 BC)
- 492 BC
- 72nd Olympiad.
- Camerina revolts against Syracuse, seeks help from Hippocrates of Gela.
- Hippocrates defeats Syracusans at Heloros, then besieges Syracuse.
- Peace deal gives Hippocrates control of Camerina.
- Empedocles (philosopher) born in Akragas.
- 491 BC
- Hippocrates killed fighting the Sikels.
- Gelon, son of Deinomenes, ousts heirs Euclid & Cleander, becomes tyrant of Gela.
- 490 BC
- Battle of Marathon (Aug 17): Athenians & Plataeans defeat Persian invasion.
- Possible death of Pythagoras (alt. 480 BC).
- Aristodemus Malacus (tyrant of Kyme) assassinated.
- Birth of Zeno of Elea, Eleatic philosopher (Achilles & tortoise paradox).
- Cumae begins minting coins.
- Temple E at Selinus (to 470 BC), likely dedicated to Hera.
III. Conflict and Expansion (488 – 480 BC)
- 488 BC
- Theron II seizes power in Akragas (alt. 489 BC).
- 73rd Olympiad:
- Astylos of Kroton wins stadion & diaulos.
- Gelon I of Gela wins chariot racing.
- 486 BC
- Rome signs treaty with the Hernici.
- 485 BC
- Gelon I restores noble Gamoroi in Syracuse, ousting Killichiroi government.
- Anaxilas of Rhegium invades Sicily, captures Zankle, renames it Messene (honoring Messenian heritage).
- Parmenides (Eleatic philosophy) denies existence of the void.
- 484 BC
- Gelon I proclaimed tyrant of Syracuse, moves seat from Gela, leaving brother Hieron I in Gela.
- 74th Olympiad: Astylos of Kroton (now competing for Syracuse) wins stadion & diaulos again.
- Birth of Herodotus.
- 483 – 482 BC
- Gelon I destroys Camarina, moves population to Syracuse.
- Theron II expels Terillus from Himera.
- Gelon relocates half of Gela’s population to Syracuse, destroys Megara Hyblaea.
- 481 BC
- Mainland Greek envoys ask Gelon I for help vs. Persia. Gelon offers a huge army & fleet if he’s made commander-in-chief. Spartans & Athenians refuse.
- 480 BC
- Battle of Himera: Gelon (Syracuse), Theron (Akragas), Hieron (Gela) defeat Carthaginian force under Himilco/Hannibal Mago.
- Simultaneous or near: Battle of Salamis in Greece.
- Had Carthage & Persia succeeded, Greek civilization might have fallen.
- Great Doric Temple of Victory built at Himera.
- Xerxes captures Athens; Athenians consider migrating to S Italy.
- Mago dynasty in Carthage overthrown, Court of 104 Magistrates established.
- Locri & Rhegium defeat Croton.
- Construction of Doric Temple of Olympian Zeus at Akragas begins (112.6 × 56.3 m).
- Philolaus (Pythagorean) born in Magna Graecia.
- 75th Olympiad: Astylos of Syracuse wins stadion, diaulos, hoplites race; unprecedented triple.
- Possible death of Pythagoras at Metapontum.
- Birth of playwright Euripides.
IV. Aftermath of Himera (479 – 470 BC)
- 479 BC
- (Aug) Volcanic activity on Mt Etna (to c. 476 BC).
- Greeks defeat Persians at Plataea.
- 478 BC
- Gelon I dies; succeeded by brother Hieron I.
- Hieron appoints another brother, Polyzelos, at Gela.
- 476 BC
- Anaxilaus of Rhegium & Messina dies; succeeded by Mycithos at Rhegium.
- 76th Olympiad: Zopyrus of Syracuse wins armored race.
- 475 BC (c.)
- Temple D at Metapontum built (Ionic, 8×20 columns).
- Possible eruption on Vulcano.
- 474 BC
- Combined fleets of Cumae & Syracuse under Hieron I defeat Etruscans off Cumae.
- Greeks largely abandon Ischia due to volcanic activity; Hieron sets up a garrison there.
- Samnites capture Pompeii from Greeks (alt. c. 420 BC).
- Roman census: 103,000 citizens.
- 473 BC
- Pindar visits court of Hieron I in Syracuse.
- Greeks from Taras suffer defeat by Messapians/Iapygians.
- 472 BC
- 77th Olympiad.
- Thrasydaeos succeeds in Akragas.
- 471 BC
- Birth of historian Thucydides.
- 470 BC
- Democratic republic at Akragas (to 406 BC).
- Foundation of Neapolis (Naples) near earlier Paleopolis.
- Syracusan garrison leaves Ischia (volcanic activity).
- Temple of Athena at Syracuse built (6×14 columns).
- Eruption on Ischia.
V. Democratic Movements and Wars (469 – 460 BC)
- 469 BC
- Socrates born in Athens.
- 468 BC
- 78th Olympiad.
- Hieron I dies; Thrasybulos briefly tyrant of Syracuse, then overthrown—democracy established.
- Death of Simonides at Syracuse.
- Cleophron rules Rhegium.
- 466–465 BC
- Civil war in Syracuse.
- Aenesidemus overthrown as tyrant of Leontini.
- Independent commonwealths (politeia) formed in Syracuse, Akragas, others.
- Roman census: 104,714 citizens.
- 464 BC
- 79th Olympiad.
- 463 BC
- Plague in Rome kills many, including consuls.
- Festival of Liberty at Syracuse to celebrate democracy.
- 461 BC
- Kamarina refounded by Gela.
- Catane & Naxos restored.
- Messene renamed Messana.
- Democratic republics at Rhegium & Messana (to 387 BC).
- Himera independent from Akragas.
- Ducetius leads the Sikels against Greek cities (alt. 460 BC).
- 460 BC
- 80th Olympiad.
- War: Catana vs. Syracuse.
- Temple of Hera Lacinia at Akragas (to 440 BC) built.
- “Temple of Poseidon” at Poseidonia (Paestum) constructed (6×14 columns, stylobate 24.26 m × 59.98 m).
VI. Sikel Resistance and Cultural Shifts (459 – 450 BC)
- 459 BC
- Sikels under Ducetius capture Morgantina (alt. 459 BC).
- Ducetius founds Menainon (Mineo).
- Roman census: 117,319 citizens.
- 458 BC
- Aeschylus visits Sicily. Dies at Gela (456 BC).
- 456 BC
- 81st Olympiad.
- Death of Aeschylus at Gela (legend of eagle & tortoise).
- Second war between Segesta & Selinus.
- Petalism (temporary banishment) introduced at Syracuse.
- 453 – 452 BC
- Syracusan expeditions vs. Etruscans (to 452).
- Survivors of Sybaris attempt to refound their city; Croton destroys it again.
- Ducetius founds capital at Palice (alt. 453).
- Syracusan fleet raids Etruscan coast, occupies Elba.
- Pestilence hits Rome and neighbors.
- 451 – 450 BC
- Ducetius captures Motyon, alarming Syracuse & Akragas. They fail to stop him.
- Ducetius defeated at Nomae, flees to Syracuse; exiled to Corinth.
- Death of Epicharmus (comic poet, Pythagorean).
- Archestratus of Gela flourishes (gastronomy).
- Romans create the Twelve Tables law code, influenced by Greek laws.
- Oscan-speaking Lucani occupy Lucania.
- Zeno of Elea presents paradoxes.
- Greeks begin to use written numerals.
VII. Renewed Colonization and Wars (448 – 430 BC)
- 448 BC
- 83rd Olympiad.
- 447 – 446 BC
- Taras suffers defeat by Iapyges.
- Ducetius returns to Sicily, founds Cale Acte (Caronia) with Sikels & Corinthian Greeks.
- Akragas is defeated by Syracuse.
- 444 BC
- Thurii founded near old Sybaris site. Pan-Hellenic colony led by Athens, with Herodotus & Hippodamus among colonists. (alt. 446 or 443 BC).
- 84th Olympiad. Ikos of Taras wins Olympic Pentathlon.
- 443 – 442 BC
- Plague in Rome (to 438).
- Athens signs treaties with Leontini & Rhegium.
- Athenian fleet at Neapolis.
- Ducetius captures Piacus (c. 442).
- 440 BC
- 85th Olympiad.
- Ducetius dies; Syracusans sack Palice, enslave population.
- Syracuse annexes former Sikel lands.
- 436 BC
- 86th Olympiad.
- 433 – 432 BC
- Heraclea founded by Taras & Thurii (successor to Siris).
- Rhegium & Leontini renew alliance with Athens.
- Possible death of Empedocles, who may have jumped into Mt. Etna.
- 431 BC
- Peloponnesian War begins in Greece.
- 430 BC
- Death of Zeno of Elea.
- Birth of Plato (alt. 428/427).
- Birth of Dionysius I of Syracuse.
- Doric Temple of Concordia at Akragas built (among best-preserved Doric temples).
- Temple of Hephaestus at Akragas.
- Temple at Segesta built by Elymians.
- Widespread epidemic.
VIII. Height of the Peloponnesian War and Sicilian Conflict (429 – 413 BC)
- 429 BC
- Plague devastates Athens; Pericles among victims.
- 428 BC
- 88th Olympiad.
- Archytas of Tarentum (Pythagorean philosopher, mathematician, statesman) born.
- 427 BC
- Kamarina allies with Athens; Gorgias of Leontini introduces rhetoric in Athens.
- Plato possibly born in Athens.
- 425 BC
- Athens sends fleet to Sicilian waters to help Leontini. Attacks Lipara.
- Eruption on Mt Etna (to 424 BC).
- 424 BC
- 89th Olympiad.
- Camarina & Gela sign treaty. Pan-Sicilian congress at Gela meets; Hermocrates persuades banning foreign intervention—Athenians withdraw.
- Samnites/Sabelli take Capua (or 425 BC).
- Aesara of Lucania (late Pythagorean) flourishes.
- Antiochus of Syracuse compiles a History of Sicily.
- 422 – 421 BC
- Syracuse captures Leontini.
- Lilianum (Giugliano in Campania) founded by Cumae colonists.
- Samnites seize Cumae from Greeks (or 421 BC).
- 420 BC
- 90th Olympiad.
- Samnites expand further in Campania.
- 416 – 415 BC
- 91st Olympiad (416).
- Alcibiades convinces Athens to invade Sicily.
- Segesta asks Athens for help vs. Selinus.
- (415) Athenian invasion of Sicily; short delay due to “mutilation of the herms.”
- Gela sides with Syracuse; Leontini allies with Athens.
- 414 – 413 BC
- Main Athenian fleet besieges Syracuse (Apr 414). Spartan Gylippus aids Syracuse.
- 2nd Athenian fleet (Demosthenes) arrives (July 413).
- Athenians attempt retreat but are delayed by a lunar eclipse (Aug 27), leading to their annihilation.
- Nicias executed; survivors enslaved in Syracuse’s silver mines.
- Syracuse captures Leontini.
- Romans destroy Auruncian Pentapolis.
- 412 – 411 BC
- 92nd Olympiad (412).
- Democratic regime in Athens overthrown (411), replaced by oligarchy due to Sicily disaster.
IX. Carthaginian Invasions and Dionysius’s Rise (409 – 400 BC)
- 409 BC
- Hermocrates exiled from Syracuse.
- Carthage renews Sicilian conquest under Hannibal Mago, destroys Selinus & Himera. Surviving Himera Greeks moved to Thermae Himeraeae.
- 408 BC
- 93rd Olympiad.
- 407 BC
- Death of Euripides.
- 406 BC
- Carthaginians besiege Akragas, eventually capture it (to 392 BC).
- Gela & Kamarina sacked by Carthage.
- Dionysius I slow to respond, becomes tyrant of Syracuse.
- Hermocrates returns from exile, is killed in Syracuse.
- Eruption of Mt Etna near Katane.
- Death of Sophocles (alt. 405 BC).
- 405 BC
- Plague hits Carthaginian camp; Hannibal dies.
- Himilco takes over, Akragas falls.
- Dionysius I of Syracuse secures power.
- Heraclea Minoa captured by Carthage.
- Leontini regains independence from Syracuse.
- 404 BC
- 94th Olympiad.
- Plague ravages Carthage.
- End of Peloponnesian War in Greece (Athens surrenders to Sparta).
- 403 BC
- Dionysius I destroys Naxos for aiding Athens; it becomes a minor village.
- Syracuse recaptures Leontini.
- Halaesa Arconidea founded by Archonides (mix of Greeks & Sikels).
- 401 BC
- Syracuse sends 3,000 hoplites (under Sosis) to join Cyrus the Younger’s Persian army (the Ten Thousand).